A growing body of research shows beneficial after effects of acute (i.e., single bouts of) physical activity on cognitive performance across different populations. Meta-analytic reviews typically ...find small effect sizes, however, the research in this area varies significantly regarding physical activity characteristics, measures of cognitive performance, investigated populations, and methodological strength of the work. Therefore, this symposium aims to look at potential mediators (e.g., physical activity characteristics, measures of cognitive performance, positive affect) and moderators (e.g., different populations) that might influence acute effects of physical activity on cognitive performance.
Classroom-based physical activity (PA) is gaining attention in terms of its potential to enhance children's cognitive functions, but it remains unclear as to which specific modality of PA affects ...cognitive functions most. The aim of the study was to examine the effects of qualitatively different PA breaks on children's cognitive outcomes. Children (N = 142) aged between 7 and 9 years were allocated to a 20-week classroom-based PA program, with either high physical exertion and high cognitive engagement (combo group), high physical exertion and low cognitive engagement (aerobic group), or low physical exertion and high cognitive engagement (cognition group). Executive functions (updating, inhibition, shifting) and academic achievement (mathematics, spelling, reading) were measured pre- and post-intervention. Results showed that the combo group profited the most displaying enhanced shifting and mathematic performance. The cognition group profited only in terms of enhanced mathematic performance, whereas the aerobic group remained unaffected. These results suggest that the inclusion of cognitively engaging PA breaks seem to be a promising way to enhance school children's cognitive functions.
Exergaming, or active video gaming, has become an emerging trend in fitness, education and health sectors. It is defined as digital games that require bodily movements to play, stimulating an active ...gaming experience to function as a form of physical activity (PA). Since exergaming is becoming more popular, claims have been made on the usefulness of exergaming. It has, for example, been entitled as being "the future of fitness" by the American College of Sports Medicine, promoting PA and health in children and adolescents. However, research also suggests that long-term engagement in exergaming is difficult to achieve, and there is a noticeable reservation towards exergaming by parents, teachers and caregivers. To provide an overview and to outline the future directions of exergaming, the aim of this review was to critically illustrate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of exergaming to promote PA and health in children and youth. The available evidence indicates that exergaming has the potential to improve health via an increase in PA. However, it seems that this potential is frequently underexploited, and further developments such as customized exergames are needed.
Classroom-based physical activity breaks are postulated to positively impact children's attention during their school day. However, empirical evidence for this claim is scarce and the role of ...cognitive engagement in enhancing children's attentional performance is unexplored in studies on physical activity breaks. The aim of the present study was therefore to disentangle the separate and/or combined effects of physical exertion and cognitive engagement induced by physical activity breaks on primary school children's attention. In addition, the role of children's affective reactions to acute interventions at school was investigated. Using a 2 × 2 between-subjects experimental design, 92 children between the ages of 11 and 12 years (
= 11.77,
= 0.41) were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: (1) combo group (physical activity with high cognitive demands), (2) cognition group (sedentary with high cognitive demands), (3) physical group (physical activity with low cognitive demands), and (4) control group (sedentary with low cognitive demands). Attention and affect were measured before and immediately after a 10-min intervention. ANCOVAs revealed that whereas physical exertion had no effect on any measure of children's attentional performance, cognitive engagement was the crucial factor leading to increased focused attention and enhanced processing speed. Mediational analyses showed that changes in positive affect during the interventions mediated the effect between cognitive engagement and focused attention as well as between cognitive engagement and processing speed. These surprising results are discussed in the light of theories predicting both facilitating and deteriorative effects of positive affect on attention.
The study aimed to elucidate the influence of cognitive engagement comprised in an acute bout of exergame-based physical activity on executive functions (inhibition, cognitive flexibility) in ...adolescents. Therefore, the level of cognitive engagement and the intensity of physical activity were systematically varied across three experimental conditions. Sixty-five healthy male adolescents (13-16 years) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) physical activity with high levels of cognitive engagement during active video gaming, (b) physical activity with low levels of cognitive engagement during active video gaming, (c) sedentary with low levels of cognitive engagement during passive video watching. Manipulation checks, including subjective and objective operationalizations of cognitive engagement, were applied. Executive functions were assessed before and after each condition using the D-KEFS design fluency test. Results showed that cognitive engagement, operationalized by subjects' ratings and heart rate variability, differed between conditions. The physical activity condition with a high level of cognitive engagement resulted in significantly better performance in cognitive flexibility compared to conditions with low levels of cognitive engagement. Regarding benefits for executive functions in male adolescents, the results indicate that acute physical activity with high cognitive engagement could be more efficient than physical activity of the same intensity with low cognitive engagement. Even though further evidence is needed, these results extend previous research and suggest a methodological approach for measuring cognitive engagement.
Even though positive relations between children's motor ability and their academic achievement are frequently reported, the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. Executive function has indeed been ...proposed, but hardly tested as a potential mediator. The aim of the present study was therefore to examine the mediating role of executive function in the relationship between motor ability and academic achievement, also investigating the individual contribution of specific motor abilities to the hypothesized mediated linkage to academic achievement. At intervals of ten weeks, 236 children aged between 10 and 12 years were tested in terms of their motor ability (t1: cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, motor coordination), core executive functions (t2: updating, inhibition, shifting), and academic achievement (t3: mathematics, reading, spelling). Structural equation modelling revealed executive function to be a mediator in the relation between motor ability and academic achievement, represented by a significant indirect effect. In separate analyses, each of the three motor abilities were positively related to children's academic achievement. However, only in the case of children's motor coordination, the mediation by executive function accounted for a significance percentage of variance of academic achievement data. The results provide evidence in support of models that conceive executive function as a mechanism explaining the relationship that links children's physical activity-related outcomes to academic achievement and strengthen the advocacy for quality physical activity not merely focused on health-related physical fitness outcomes, but also on motor skill development and learning.
The aim of this study was to investigate sports activity and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of Swiss children and adolescents (7–16 years) during the national COVID-19 stay at home (SaH) ...period. In total, 237 parent-child pairs gave information about HRQoL and sports activity (duration and type) before and during SaH. Results show that sports activity decreased during SaH and was also positively related to HRQoL. These findings indicate that sports activity of children and adolescents should be promoted during SaH, for which innovative home-based interventions may be useful.
Background
Children with ADHD frequently suffer from deficits in cognitive (ie, executive functions) and motor abilities. Although medication usually has a positive effect, a lack of commitment and ...possible side effects result in a need for adjunct or alternative treatments. Thus, the aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of cognitively and physically demanding exergaming on executive functions, ADHD symptoms, and motor abilities.
Methods
In a parallel group randomized trial, 51 children between 8‐12 years (M = 10.63; SD = 1.32) diagnosed with ADHD were assigned either to an 8‐week exergame intervention group (three training sessions per week for 30 minutes) or a waiting‐list control group. The core executive functions (inhibition, switching, updating), parent ratings of symptoms, and motor abilities were assessed/gathered before and after the intervention.
Results
Analyses of covariance (using pre‐test values as covariates) revealed that children in the exergame intervention group improved in specific executive functions (reaction times in inhibition and switching), general psychopathology as well as motor abilities compared to control group.
Conclusions
Findings indicate that exergaming might benefit two domains in which frequent deficits can be observed in children with ADHD, executive functions and motor abilities. Given that these beneficial effects in turn might positively affect psychopathology, exergaming could serve as an individualized home‐based intervention in the future. However, in order to maximize benefits and make exergaming a valuable adjunct to treatment for children with ADHD, customized exergames are needed.
Introduction
Acute bouts of physical activity (PA) have the potential to transiently enhance children’s cognition (Ludyga et al., 2016). Although these positive results seem to be relatively ...consistent, there is considerable heterogeneity in the magnitude of effects (Lubans et al., 2022). Cognitive benefits are largely influenced by the interaction of quantitative and qualitative PA task characteristics (Lubans et al., 2022; Pesce, 2012), as well as by individual differences in responsiveness to PA bouts (Herold et al., 2021). Understanding the individual and joint effects of moderators is of great practical importance in the educational setting (Schmidt et al., 2021). This information could help to design and individualize PA breaks to enhance cognitive functions that are essential for learning and academic achievement, such as executive functions (EFs; responsible for self-regulation and goal-directed behavior) and attention (responsible for allocation of resources).
Among PA task characteristics, the level of cognitive challenge has attracted increasing interest; however, a low comparability of PA studies varying in both quantitative parameters and qualitative modality do not allow for definitive conclusions (Paschen et al., 2019; Schmidt et al., 2021). Moreover, preliminary evidence highlights that positive affect induced by the PA bout may mediate PA effects on cognition (Schmidt et al., 2016).
Thus, the aim of the research program was threefold: (1) shed light on which cognitive challenge level in acute PA may affect children’s EFs and attention (“cognitive challenge” study); (2) investigate which bout duration of the identified optimal cognitive challenge level is necessary to reap largest benefits (“bout duration” study); and (3) manipulate positive affect through supportive feedback (and music) to elucidate its influence on cognitive performance (“positive affect” study).
Methods
Three studies with within-subjects experimental design were conducted with 5th-6th graders (N = 110, N = 114, N = 102; determined by a-priori power analyses). Each study used an exergame (i.e., active video game that involves gross-motor PA) as intervention, performed at 65% maximum heart rate (HR). For the studies, the following experimental conditions were used:
“Cognitive challenge” study: three sessions (15-min) with different cognitive challenge levels (low, mid, high), continuously adapted to the individual ongoing performance by an ascending number of distracting stimuli and misleading cues.
“Bout duration” study: four sessions with the same, individually adapted cognitive challenge level (chosen according to “cognitive challenge” study) and different PA durations (5-, 10-, 15-, 20-min).
“Positive affect” study: three sessions with the same cognitive challenge level and duration of the PA bout (chosen according to “cognitive challenge” and “bout duration” studies) and different affect-inducing feedback (no feedback, music with sound effects, music with sound effects and verbal supportive feedback).
Each exergame session was performed individually during school hours (once a week). Children wore motion-based trackers and a HR sensor, while playing a virtual game that required performing different movements (e.g., jumps, squats, punches). During each session (every 5 minutes), perceived physical and cognitive challenge, as well as affective states were assessed. After the exergame, executive control (flanker effect), attentional alerting and orienting, and their interactive functioning were assessed by a child-adapted attention network test (ANT-R; Fan et al., 2009). Repeated measures ANOVAs were calculated to analyze intervention effects on reaction times (RTs) and accuracy data, with subsequent post-hoc Bonferroni-adjusted comparisons.
Results
“Cognitive challenge” study. A significant interaction for RTs between cognitive challenge and flanker conditions emerged F(2, 100) = 4.16, p = .018, ƞ2p = .07, with no effects for accuracy. Post-hoc analyses of RT difference data (incongruent – congruent, i.e., flanker effect) revealed best performance after the high-challenge condition (ps < .045; ƞ2ps > .01). Regarding differential effects, adding sex to the model showed that it moderated the effect of cognitive challenge on the interactive functioning of executive control and attentional orienting F(6, 96) = 2.33, p = .038, ƞ2p = .12.
“Bout duration” study. A significant effect of duration on overall RTs emerged F(3, 101) = 4.04, p = .009, ƞ2p = .11, with no effects on accuracy. Post-hoc comparisons revealed significantly faster RTs after the 15-min compared to the 10-min condition (p = .019, ƞ2p = .09). Regarding differential effects, adding habitual PA level to the model showed that it moderated the effect of duration on the interactive functioning of executive control and attentional orienting F(3, 100) = 4.81, p = .004, ƞ2p = .13.
“Positive affect” study. Ongoing – results will be presented at the SGS-meeting.
Discussion
The high-challenging bout benefited children’s executive control the most (“cognitive challenge” study), supporting the hypothesis that PA designed to generate cognitive engagement may facilitate performance in subsequent EF tasks (i.e., cognitive stimulation hypothesis; Pesce, 2012). However, attentional alerting and orienting were unaffected in the current study, which is in line with the absence of effects found for aerobic PA bouts (van den Berg et al., 2018).
The 15-min cognitively high-challenging bout benefited children’s overall information processing speed the most, with no duration-dependent differences for executive control, alerting or orienting (“bout duration” study). Results extend to acute cognitively challenging PA the duration-dependent effects that have been found for acute high-intensity or aerobic PA bouts on overall information processing, but neither on EFs (Hatch et al., 2021), nor on alerting and orienting (van den Berg et al., 2018).
Interestingly, in both “cognitive challenge” and “bout duration” studies an intriguing interplay between individual and tasks characteristics on the interactive functioning of executive control and orienting networks emerged. Indeed, the high-challenging bout benefited – for males only – also the efficiency of executive control under disadvantageous spatial attention conditions, consistent with previous adult studies without PA (Li et al., 2021). Whereas, the 15-min duration benefited the same interactive functioning for more active children only, which is in line with evidence that cognitively challenging PA bouts benefit EF efficiency more in children who are physically and cognitively better equipped to capitalize on it (Jäger et al., 2015).
The added value of the present studies within an inconsistent evidence base (Paschen et al., 2019; Schmidt et al., 2021) is threefold. The studies allowed to (1) disentangle cognitive from physical challenge effects, while individualizing cognitive challenge; (2) identify the optimal duration for learning contexts; and (3) further the understanding of the interplay between individual and task characteristics. The “positive affect” study will complement the investigation of individual- and task-level moderators with information on positive affect as potential mediator for the acute PA-cognition relation. Results of the research program may inform the design of acute and chronic PA studies implemented in the school context, to capitalize jointly on physical and cognitive benefits of PA.
References
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