We report our observation of the short gamma-ray burst (GRB) GRB 170817A, associated to the binary neutron star merger gravitational wave (GW) event GW 170817, performed in the X-ray band with ...XMM-Newton 135 d after the event (on 29 December, 2017). We find evidence for a flattening of the X-ray light curve with respect to the previously observed brightening. This is also supported by a nearly simultaneous optical Hubble Space Telescope observation and successive X-ray Chandra and low-frequency radio observations recently reported in the literature. Since the optical-to-X-ray spectral slope did not change with respect to previous observations, we exclude that the change in the temporal evolution of the light curve is due to the passage of the cooling frequency: its origin must be geometric or dynamical. We interpret all the existing afterglow data with two models: i) a structured jet and ii) a jet-less isotropic fireball with some stratification in its radial velocity structure. Both models fit the data and predict that the radio flux must decrease simultaneously with the optical and X-ray emission, making it difficult to distinguish between them at the present stage. Polarimetric measurements and the rate of short GRB-GW associations in future LIGO/Virgo runs will be key to disentangle these two geometrically different scenarios.
We present a carefully selected sample of short gamma-ray bursts (SGRBs) observed by the Swift satellite up to 2013 June. Inspired by the criteria we used to build a similar sample of bright long ...GRBs (the BAT6 sample), we selected SGRBs with favourable observing conditions for the redshift determination on ground, ending up with a sample of 36 events, almost half of which with a redshift measure. The redshift completeness increases up to about 70 per cent (with an average redshift value of z = 0.85) by restricting to those events that are bright in the 15–150 keV Swift Burst Alert Telescope energy band. Such flux-limited sample minimizes any redshift-related selection effects, and can provide a robust base for the study of the energetics, redshift distribution and environment of the Swift bright population of SGRBs. For all the events of the sample, we derived the prompt and afterglow emission in both the observer and (when possible) rest frame and tested the consistency with the correlations valid for long GRBs. The redshift and intrinsic X-ray absorbing column density distributions we obtain are consistent with the scenario of SGRBs originated by the coalescence of compact objects in primordial binaries, with a possible minor contribution (∼10–25 per cent) of binaries formed by dynamical capture (or experiencing large natal kicks). This sample is expected to significantly increase with further years of Swift activity.
In this paper, we compute rest-frame extinctions for the afterglows of a sample of Swift gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) complete in redshift. The selection criteria of the sample are based on observational ...high-energy parameters of the prompt emission and therefore our sample should not be biased against dusty sight-lines. It is therefore expected that our inferences hold for the general population of GRBs. Our main result is that the optical/near-infrared extinction of GRB afterglows in our sample does not follow a single distribution. 87 per cent of the events are absorbed by less than 2 mag, and 50 per cent suffer from less than 0.3-0.4 mag extinction. The remaining 13 per cent of the afterglows are highly absorbed. The true percentage of GRB afterglows showing high absorption could be even higher since a fair fraction of the events without reliable redshift measurement are probably part of this class. These events may be due to highly dusty molecular clouds/star-forming regions associated with the GRB progenitor or along the afterglow line of sight, and/or due to massive dusty host galaxies. No clear evolution in the dust extinction properties is evident within the redshift range of our sample, although the largest extinctions are at z ∼ 1.5-2, close to the expected peak of the star formation rate. Those events classified as dark are characterized, on average, by a higher extinction than typical events in the sample. A correlation between optical/near-infrared extinction and hydrogen-equivalent column density based on X-ray studies is shown, although the observed N
H appears to be well in excess compared to those observed in the Local Group. Dust extinction does not seem to correlate with GRB energetics or luminosity.
Abstract
We report the discovery of the unusually bright long-duration gamma-ray burst (GRB), GRB 221009A, as observed by the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory (Swift), Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image, ...and Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer Mission. This energetic GRB was located relatively nearby (
z
= 0.151), allowing for sustained observations of the afterglow. The large X-ray luminosity and low Galactic latitude (
b
= 4.°3) make GRB 221009A a powerful probe of dust in the Milky Way. Using echo tomography, we map the line-of-sight dust distribution and find evidence for significant column densities at large distances (≳10 kpc). We present analysis of the light curves and spectra at X-ray and UV–optical wavelengths, and find that the X-ray afterglow of GRB 221009A is more than an order of magnitude brighter at
T
0
+ 4.5 ks than that from any previous GRB observed by Swift. In its rest frame, GRB 221009A is at the high end of the afterglow luminosity distribution, but not uniquely so. In a simulation of randomly generated bursts, only 1 in 10
4
long GRBs were as energetic as GRB 221009A; such a large
E
γ
,iso
implies a narrow jet structure, but the afterglow light curve is inconsistent with simple top-hat jet models. Using the sample of Swift GRBs with redshifts, we estimate that GRBs as energetic and nearby as GRB 221009A occur at a rate of ≲1 per 1000 yr—making this a truly remarkable opportunity unlikely to be repeated in our lifetime.
We derive the luminosity function φ(L) and redshift distribution Ψ(z) of short gamma-ray bursts (SGRBs) using all the available observer-frame constraints (i.e. peak flux, fluence, peak energy and ...duration distributions) of the large population of Fermi SGRBs and the rest-frame properties of a complete sample of SGRBs detected by Swift. We show that a steep φ(L) ∝ L− α with α ≥ 2.0 is excluded if the full set of constraints is considered. We implement a Markov chain Monte Carlo method to derive the φ(L) and Ψ(z) functions assuming intrinsic Ep−Liso and Ep−Eiso correlations to hold or, alternatively, that the distributions of intrinsic peak energy, luminosity, and duration are independent. To make our results independent from assumptions on the progenitor (NS−NS binary mergers or other channels) and from uncertainties on the star formation history, we assume a parametric form for the redshift distribution of the population of SGRBs. We find that a relatively flat luminosity function with slope ~0.5 below a characteristic break luminosity ~3 × 1052 erg s-1 and a redshift distribution of SGRBs peaking at z ~ 1.5−2 satisfy all our constraints. These results also hold if no Ep−Liso and Ep−Eiso correlations are assumed and they do not depend on the choice of the minimum luminosity of the SGRB population. We estimate, within ~200 Mpc (i.e. the design aLIGO range for the detection of gravitational waves produced by NS−NS merger events), that there should be 0.007−0.03 SGRBs yr-1 detectable as γ-ray events. Assuming current estimates of NS−NS merger rates and that all NS−NS mergers lead to a SGRB event, we derive a conservative estimate of the average opening angle of SGRBs ⟨ θjet ⟩ ~ 3°−6°. The luminosity function implies a prompt emission average luminosity ⟨L⟩ ~ 1.5 × 1052 erg s-1, higher by nearly two orders of magnitude than previous findings in the literature, which greatly enhances the chance of observing SGRB “orphan” afterglows. Effort should go in the direction of finding and identifying such orphan afterglows as counterparts of GW events.
We present an updated catalogue of 113 X-ray flares detected by Swift in the ∼33 per cent of the X-ray afterglows of gamma-ray burst (GRB). 43 flares have a measured redshift. For the first time the ...analysis is performed in four different X-ray energy bands, allowing us to constrain the evolution of the flare temporal properties with energy. We find that flares are narrower at higher energies: their width follows a power-law relation w∝E−0.5 reminiscent of the prompt emission. Flares are asymmetric structures, with a decay time which is twice the rise time on average. Both time-scales linearly evolve with time, giving rise to a constant rise-to-decay ratio: this implies that both time-scales are stretched by the same factor. As a consequence, the flare width linearly evolves with time to larger values: this is a key point that clearly distinguishes the flare from the GRB prompt emission. The flare 0.3–10 keV peak luminosity decreases with time, following a power-law behaviour with large scatter: Lpk∝t−2.7±0.5pk. When multiple flares are present, a global softening trend is established: each flare is on average softer than the previous one. The 0.3–10 keV isotropic energy distribution is a lognormal peaked at 1051 erg, with a possible excess at low energies. The flare average spectral energy distribution is found to be a power law with spectral energy index β∼ 1.1. These results confirmed that the flares are tightly linked to the prompt emission. However, after considering various models we conclude that no model is currently able to account for the entire set of observations.
We present a comprehensive statistical analysis of Swift X-ray light curves of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) collecting data from more than 650 GRBs discovered by Swift and other facilities. The ...unprecedented sample size allows us to constrain the rest-frame
X-ray properties of GRBs from a statistical perspective, with particular reference to intrinsic time-scales and the energetics of the different light-curve phases in a common rest-frame 0.3-30 keV energy band. Temporal variability episodes are also studied and their properties constrained. Two fundamental questions drive this effort: (i) Does the X-ray emission retain any kind of 'memory' of the prompt γ-ray phase? (ii) Where is the dividing line between long and short GRB X-ray properties? We show that short GRBs decay faster, are less luminous and less energetic than long GRBs in the X-rays, but are interestingly characterized by similar intrinsic absorption. We furthermore reveal the existence of a number of statistically significant relations that link the X-ray to prompt γ-ray parameters in long GRBs; short GRBs are outliers of the majority of these two-parameter relations. However and more importantly, we report on the existence of a universal three-parameter scaling that links the X-ray and the γ-ray energy to the prompt spectral peak energy of both long and short GRBs: E
X, iso∝E
1.00 ± 0.06
γ, iso/E
0.60 ± 0.10
pk.
ABSTRACT
The joint observation of GW170817 and GRB170817A proved that binary neutron star (BNS) mergers are progenitors of short gamma-ray bursts (SGRBs): this established a direct link between the ...still unsettled SGRB central engine and the outcome of BNS mergers, whose nature depends on the equation of state (EOS) and on the masses of the NSs. We propose a novel method to probe the central engine of SGRBs based on this link. We produce an extended catalogue of BNS mergers by combining recent theoretically predicted BNS merger rate as a function of redshift and the NS mass distribution inferred from measurements of Galactic BNSs. We use this catalogue to predict the number of BNS systems ending as magnetars (stable or supramassive NS) or BHs (formed promptly or after the collapse of a hypermassive NS) for different EOSs, and we compare these outcomes with the observed rate of SGRBs. Despite the uncertainties mainly related to the poor knowledge of the SGRB jet structure, we find that for most EOSs the rate of magnetars produced after BNS mergers is sufficient to power all the SGRBs, while scenarios with only BHs as possible central engine seem to be disfavoured.
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