The gender wage gap Blau, Francine D; Kahn, Lawrence M
Journal of economic literature,
09/2017, Letnik:
55, Številka:
3
Journal Article
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Using Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) microdata over the 1980–2010 period, we provide new empirical evidence on the extent of and trends in the gender wage gap, which declined considerably ...during this time. By 2010, conventional human capital variables taken together explained little of the gender wage gap, while gender differences in occupation and industry continued to be important. Moreover, the gender pay gap declined much more slowly at the top of the wage distribution than at the middle or bottom and by 2010 was noticeably higher at the top. We then survey the literature to identify what has been learned about the explanations for the gap. We conclude that many of the traditional explanations continue to have salience. Although human-capital factors are now relatively unimportant in the aggregate, women's work force interruptions and shorter hours remain significant in high-skilled occupations, possibly due to compensating differentials. Gender differences in occupations and industries, as well as differences in gender roles and the gender division of labor remain important, and research based on experimental evidence strongly suggests that discrimination cannot be discounted. Psychological attributes or noncognitive skills comprise one of the newer explanations for gender differences in outcomes. Our effort to assess the quantitative evidence on the importance of these factors suggests that they account for a small to moderate portion of the gender pay gap, considerably smaller than, say, occupation and industry effects, though they appear to modestly contribute to these differences.
Abstract
PHOS is a highly granulated precision spectrometer, one of the two electromagnetic calorimeters of ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) at the LHC. It is based on scintillating PbWO
4
...crystals and is dedicated to the precise measurements of spectra, correlations and collective flow of neutral mesons, thermal and prompt direct photons in ultra-relativistic nuclear collisions at LHC energies. PHOS participated in LHC Run 1 (2009–2013) and Run 2 (2015–2018), during which a large amount of physical data were collected in pp, p-Pb and Pb-Pb collisions.
We present an overview of the PHOS performance during Runs 1 and 2 and plans for an upgrade for future LHC runs.
In 1990, the US had the sixth highest female labor participation rate among 22 OECD countries. By 2010 its rank had fallen to seventeenth. We find that the expansion of “family-friendly” policies, ...including parental leave and part-time work entitlements in other OECD countries, explains 29 percent of the decrease in US women's labor force participation relative to these other countries. However, these policies also appear to encourage part-time work and employment in lower level positions: US women are more likely than women in other countries to have full time jobs and to work as managers or professionals.
Using March Current Population Survey data, we investigate married women’s labor supply from 1980 to 2000. We find a large rightward shift in their labor supply function for annual hours in the ...1980s, with little shift in the 1990s. These shifts account for most of the slowdown in the growth of labor supply during this period. A major development was the dramatic decrease in the responsiveness of married women’s labor supply to their own and husbands’ wages: their own wage elasticity fell by 50%–56%, while their cross wage elasticity fell by 38%–47% in absolute value.
Using Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) data, the authors study the slowdown in the convergence of female and male wages in the 1990s compared to the 1980s. They find that changes in ...human capital did not contribute to the slowdown, since women's relative human capital improved comparably in the two decades. Occupational upgrading and deunionization had a larger positive effect on women's relative wages in the 1980s than in the 1990s, explaining part of the slower 1990s convergence. However, the largest factor was a much faster reduction of the "unexplained" gender wage gap in the 1980s than in the 1990s. The evidence suggests that changes in labor force selectivity, changes in gender differences in unmeasured characteristics and in labor market discrimination, and changes in the favorableness of demand shifts each may have contributed to the slowing convergence of the unexplained gender pay gap.
Scintillation crystals Gd
Al
Ga
O
(GAGG) are considered for the application in ionizing-radiation detectors because of their high radiation resistance, density and light yield. These crystals can be ...used in addition to lead tungstate (PbWO
or PWO) crystals for the development of a new generation electromagnetic calorimeter with good spatial and energy resolutions in a broad energy range. PWO crystals enable an accurate detection of high energy photons, while the addition of GAGG crystals makes it possible to precisely measure photon energies down to a few MeV units. Different options of composite electromagnetic calorimeter based on PWO and GAGG crystals are considered to optimize spatial and energy resolutions in a broad energy range (from 1 MeV to 100 GeV). The optimization is based on Geant4 simulations taking into account light collection as well as using different photodetectors and noise of electronics. The simulations are verified with the help of light yield measurements of GAGG samples obtained using radioactive sources and test beam measurements of PWO based photon spectrometer of the ALICE experiment at CERN.
Using the 1995—2011 March Current Population Survey and 1970—2000 Census data, we find that the fertility, education, and labor supply of second-generation women (US-born women with at least one ...foreign-born parent) are significantly positively affected by the immigrant generation's levels of these variables, with the effect of the fertility and labor supply of women from the mother's source country generally larger than that of women from the father's source country and the effect of the education of men from the father's source country larger than that of women from the mother's source country. We present some evidence that suggests our findings for fertility and labor supply are due at least in part to intergenerational transmission of gender roles. Transmission rates for immigrant fertility and labor supply between generations are higher than for education, but there is considerable intergenerational assimilation toward native levels for all three of these outcomes.
The ALICE experiment is optimized to study the properties of hot quark–gluon plasma produced in ultrarelativistic heavy-ion collisions. One of the electromagnetic calorimeters of ALICE, the Photon ...Spectrometer (PHOS), is designed for measuring direct photons and neutral mesons spectra. The possibility of increasing the working area of the PHOS detector by using PbWO
4
crystals of the CMS experiment is currently under consideration. It is possible to change the kinematic range by varying pseudo-rapidity, with a constant azimuthal angle, or azimutal angle, with the same pseudorapidity. It is also possible to move apart the detector modules without adding additional crystals. The proton collisions at energy of 13 TeV have been simulated by the Monte Carlo method using the PYTHIA software package. On the basis of the simulation results, it can be stated that for measurements in the low
p
T
region increasing the azimuthal angle is the most optimum, since it becomes possible to investigate the
p
T
region down to 25 MeV/
c
for π
0
. This makes it possible to measure direct photons in the very low energy range (tens of MeV) and possibly verify the Low theorem for soft photons. At the same time, the available range for measuring—the η meson also significantly increases (down to 50 MeV/
c
).
Using microdata for 22 countries over the 1985–94 period, we find that more compressed male wage structures and lower female net supply are both associated with a lower gender pay gap, with an ...especially large effect for wage structures. Reduced‐form specifications indicate that the extent of collective bargaining coverage is also significantly negatively related to the gender pay gap. Together, the wage compression and collective bargaining results suggest that the high wage floors that are associated with highly centralized, unionized wage setting raise women’s relative pay, since women are at the bottom of the wage distribution in each country.
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