Recent data suggest that chemokines could be essential players in breast carcinogenesis. We previously showed that the CXC chemokine CXCL8 (interleukin-8) was overexpressed in estrogen receptor alpha ...(ERalpha)-negative breast cell lines. Analysis of CXCL8 chromosomal location showed that several CXC chemokines (CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, CXCL4, CXCL4V1, CXCL5, CXCL6, CXCL7, and CXCL8) were localized in the same narrow region (360 kb in size) of chromosome 4. We thus hypothesized that they could belong to the same cluster. Quantification of these chemokines in breast tumors showed that samples expressing high CXCL8 also produced elevated levels of CXCL1, CXCL3, and CXCL5, and displayed low content of ERalpha. CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, CXCL5, and CXCL8 were co-regulated both in tumors and in breast cancer cell lines. CXCL5 and CXCL8 were mainly produced by epithelial cells, whereas CXCL1, CXCL2, and CXCL3 had a high expression in blood cells. The overexpression of these chemokines in tumor cells was not the result of gene amplification, but rather of an enhanced gene transcription. Our data suggest that high CXCL8 expression in tumors is mainly correlated to activating protein-1 (AP-1) pathway and to a minor extent to NF-kappaB pathway. Interestingly, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, CXCL5, CXCL6, and CXCL8 chemokines were present at higher levels in metastases when compared with grade I and III biopsies. High levels of CXCL8, CXCL1, and CXCL3 accounted for a shorter relapse-free survival of ERalpha-positive patients treated with tamoxifen. In summary, we present evidences that multiple CXC chemokines are co-expressed in CXCL8-positive breast tumors. In addition, these chemokines could account for the higher aggressiveness of these types of tumors.
An emerging hypothesis suggests that cytokines could play an important role in cancer as potential modulators of angiogenesis and leucocyte infiltration.
A novel multiplexed flow cytometry technology ...was used to measure the expression of 17 cytokines (IL-1beta, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12 p70, IL-13, IL-17, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor CSF, granulocyte-macrophage CSF, IFN-gamma, monocyte chemoattractant protein MCP-1, macrophage inflammatory protein MIP-1beta, tumour necrosis factor TNF-alpha) at the protein level in 105 breast carcinoma. B lymphocyte, T lymphocyte and macrophage levels were determined by immunohistochemistry.
Fourteen of the 17 cytokines were expressed in breast carcinoma, whereas only nine cytokines could be detected in normal breast. Most cytokines were more abundant in breast carcinoma than in normal breast, with IL-6, IL-8, granulocyte CSF, IFN-gamma, MCP-1 and MIP-1beta being very abundant. IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IFN-gamma, MCP-1, MIP-1beta and TNF-alpha, and to a lesser extent IL-1beta and IL-13 exhibited levels of expression that were inversely correlated to oestrogen receptor and progesterone receptor status. Most cytokines were not correlated with age at cancer diagnosis, tumour size, histological type, or lymph node status. However, IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, MCP-1 and MIP-1beta were more abundant in high-grade tumours than in low-grade tumours. In addition, IL-8 and MIP-1beta were expressed to a greater degree in HER2-positive than in HER2-negative patients. The expression of most of the studied cytokines was correlated to levels of activator protein-1, which is known to regulate numerous cytokines. Overexpression of MCP-1 and MIP-1beta were linked to B lymphocyte, T lymphocyte and macrophage infiltration, whereas high levels of IL-8 were correlated with high macrophage content in tumour. Moreover, IL-8 positive tumours exhibited increased vascularization.
We found that multiple cytokines were overexpressed in oestrogen receptor negative breast carcinoma, and that the three major cytokines--MCP-1, MIP-1beta and IL-8--were correlated with inflammatory cell component, which could account for the aggressiveness of these tumours.
ADP ribosylation factor like 2 (Arl2) protein is involved in the folding of tubulin peptides. Variants of the human adenocarcinoma line MCF7 cells with increased or reduced content of Arl2 protein ...were produced and characterized. Western blot analysis performed after separation of the different fractions of tubulins showed that the content in polymerizable soluble heterodimers was significantly increased in cells with the highest Arl2 expression level (MA+) and reduced in cells with the lowest Arl2 expression level (MA−) in comparison to control cells (MP). Microtubule dynamic instability, measured after microinjection of rhodamine-labelled tubulin in living cells, was significantly enhanced in MA+ cells and reduced in MA− cells. These alterations involved modifications of the microtubule growth and shortening rates, duration of attenuation phases, percentage of time spent in each phase (growth, shortening and attenuation) and catastrophe frequency. We also observed modifications in the expression level of the tumor suppressor protein phosphatase 2Ac, which has been shown to form a complex with Arl2. Finally, cell cycle progression was modified in these cells, particularly in regard to duration of telophase. In summary, alterations in Arl2 protein content were found to be associated with modifications in tubulin pools, microtubule dynamics as well as cell cycle progression.
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