Despite recent advances in understanding brain function, consciousness – specifically, how the brain gives rise to conscious experiences – remains ‘the hard problem.’ In humans, there are often ...multiple routes to the same actions, some of them involving conscious experience, others not. Furthermore, differences in brain circuitry make analogies between humans and other animals more difficult than is generally acknowledged. In this essay, I argue that both the study of consciousness itself and the science of animal welfare benefit from facing up to these difficulties rather than glossing over them. Animal welfare science, although often defining good welfare in term of what animals feel, does not have to be based on assumptions about which species have conscious experiences. Animal welfare (well‐being) can be defined objectively in terms of animal health and what animals want. Such a conscious‐free definition is readily understandable by people with very different views about animals and yet is practical enough to point to what factual scientific information is needed in any given case. While not precluding conscious awareness in other species, it allows animal welfare science to move forward without having solved the hardest biological problem of all.
Consciousness, in both human and non‐humans species remains such a ‘hard problem’ that both the study of consciousness and the science of animal welfare benefit from facing up to the problem rather than glossing over it. Animal welfare can be defined objectively without consciousness in terms of animal health and what animals want.
The authors examine the chemistry and changes of the mesosphere. Topics discussed include metal layers and meteoric smoke particles and the gas-phase chemistry of metallic species.
Food security is high on the global policy agenda. Demand for food is increasing as populations grow and gain wealth to purchase more varied and resource-intensive diets. There is increased ...competition for land, water, energy, and other inputs into food production. Climate change poses challenges to agriculture, particularly in developing countries (1), and many current farming practices damage the environment and are a major source of greenhouse gases (GHG). In an increasingly globalized world, food insecurity in one region can have widespread political and economic ramifications (2).
Data from a large commercial-scale experiment in which 10 major broiler producer companies stocked whole houses of birds at 30, 34, 38, 42, and 46 kg/m2 were analyzed to identify 1) temperature and ...humidity profiles achieved throughout the growth cycle, 2) management practices and equipment that contributed to observed variation in environmental conditions, and 3) the extent to which environmental variables affected bird welfare. The study involved a total of 2.7 million birds in 114 houses on commercial farms with measurement of a wide range of environmental and bird variables. Much of the variation in broiler health and welfare was associated with the percentage of time a company could maintain house temperature and RH within limits recommended by the breeder company. RH in the first week of life was particularly important to later health, suggesting that better control of humidity might lead to improved welfare. Key management factors affecting bird welfare were those relating to good ventilation and air control such as the type of ventilation, type of drinker, numbers of stockmen, and litter type. Controlling the environment, particularly temperature, humidity, and air and litter quality, is crucial to broiler chicken welfare. This does not mean that stocking density is unimportant, but lowering stocking density on its own, without regard to the environment the birds experience, is not sufficient. Genuine improvements in bird welfare will come from setting standards that combine stocking density, safeguards on the environment, and the genetic makeup of the birds.
The mesosphere/lower thermosphere (MLT, 80–100 km) region is an important boundary between Earth's atmosphere below and space above and may act as a sensitive indicator for anthropogenic climate ...change. Existing observational and modeling studies have shown the middle atmosphere and the MLT is cooling and contracting because of increasing greenhouse gas emissions. However, trend analyses are highly sensitive to the time periods covered, their length, and the measurement type and methodology used. We present for the first time the linear and 11‐year solar cycle responses in the meteor ablation altitude distributions observed by 12 meteor radars at different locations. Decreasing altitudes were seen at all latitudes (linear trends varying from −10.97 to −817.95 m dec−1), and a positive correlation with solar activity was seen for most locations. The divergence of responses at high latitudes indicates an important and complex interplay between atmospheric changes and dynamics at varying time scales.
Plain Language Summary
High up in our atmosphere lies the mesosphere/lower thermosphere region (80–100 km); an important transition zone between the atmosphere below and space above. Existing studies indicate that this region is changing (cooling and contracting) in response to increasing greenhouse gas emissions, quite unlike the net warming we see near the surface. However these trend studies are often highly sensitive to choice and length of time period covered, and the methodology and type of measurements used. Here we present for the first time a self‐consistent methodology applied to 12 different meteor radar station datasets located at a diverse range of latitudes. We looked at changes in the mean peak altitude of individual meteoroid detections, and found decreasing peak altitudes at all locations examined (linear trends varying from −10.97 to −817.95 m decade−1) consistent with a global cooling and contracting of the upper atmosphere. We also examined the response to the 11‐year solar cycle and found a positive correlation with solar activity (i.e., increased meteoroid peak altitudes during solar maximum, and vice versa) for low and mid‐latitude locations. However we found an anti‐correlation at high latitudes suggestive of an important and complex interplay between atmospheric changes and dynamics at varying time scales.
Key Points
Use of geographically diverse meteor radar peak detection altitudes to assess long‐term and 11‐year solar cycle (SC) trends in mesopause region
The altitude of observed peak meteor height has decreased over time at all locations, regardless of latitude and data set
Positive correlation at low‐ and mid‐latitude locations with the 11‐year SC, but more complex response at high‐latitudes
Here, I provide a guide for those new to the burgeoning field of animal welfare science as to what this comprehensive, relatively young discipline is all about. Drawing on all branches of biology, ...including behavioural ecology and neuroscience, the science of animal welfare asks three big questions: Are animals conscious? How can we assess good and bad welfare in animals? How can we use science to improve animal welfare in practice? I also provide guidelines for an evidence-based approach to welfare issues for policy makers and other users of animal welfare research.
Footpad dermatitis and hockburn are serious welfare and economic issues for the production of broiler (meat) chickens. The authors here describe the use of an inexpensive camera system that monitors ...the movements of broiler flocks throughout their lives and suggest that it is possible to predict, even in young birds, the cross-sectional prevalence at slaughter of footpad dermatitis and hockburn before external signs are visible. The skew and kurtosis calculated from the authors’ camera-based optical flow system had considerably more power to predict these outcomes in the 50 flocks reported here than water consumption, bodyweight or mortality and therefore have the potential to inform improved flock management through giving farmers early warning of welfare issues. Further trials are underway to establish the generality of the results.
Campylobacter from contaminated poultry meat is a major source of human gastroenteritis worldwide. To date, attempts to control this zoonotic infection with on-farm biosecurity measures have been ...inconsistent in outcome. A cornerstone of these efforts has been the detection of chicken infection with microbiological culture, where Campylobacter is generally not detectable until birds are at least 21 days old. Using parallel sequence-based bacterial 16S profiling analysis and targeted sequencing of the
gene, Campylobacter was identified at very low levels in all commercial flocks at less than 8 days old that were tested from the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and France. These young chicks exhibited a much greater diversity of
types than older birds testing positive for Campylobacter by culture or quantitative PCR (qPCR). This suggests that as the bacteria multiply sufficiently to be detected by culture methods, one or two variants, as indicated by
type, dominate the infection. The findings that (i) most young chicks carry some Campylobacter and (ii) not all flocks become Campylobacter positive by culture suggest that efforts to control infection, and therefore avoid contamination of poultry meat, should concentrate on how to limit Campylobacter to low levels by the prevention of the overgrowth of single strains.
Our results demonstrate the presence of Campylobacter DNA among fecal samples from a range of commercially reared meat chicks that are less than 8 days of age, consistent across 3 European countries. The recently developed, sensitive detection method indicates that infection occurs on commercial farms much earlier and more widely than previously thought, which opens up new opportunities to control Campylobacter contamination at the start of the food chain and reduce the unacceptably high levels of human disease.
1. Forty-six flocks of commercially-reared Pekin ducks were studied in 23 houses differing in their ventilation and brooding systems, and water and feed resources, in order to identify factors ...affecting duck welfare in commercial practice. 2. A wide range of environmental variables were measured, together with the physical and plumage condition of the ducks at two ages, whilst companies supplied mortality and growth rate data. 3. At 23 d, more than 98% of ducks had clean eyes, nostrils and feathers and an upright posture, and 86% had no gait abnormalities. By 41 d, body condition had deteriorated slightly with 84% of ducks having clean eyes, 67% clean feathers and 79% no gait abnormalities. 4. Gait worsened with increasing temperature and litter moisture, and atmospheric ammonia concentrations. The incidence of foot pad lesions was 10% (moderate) and 3% (severe) and was positively correlated with increasing humidity and ammonia. 5. Average mortality rates were 5⋅2% for ducks reared to 3⋅35 kg at 48 d with average growth rates of 60⋅3 to 81⋅3 g/d. High temperatures correlated with high mortality and reduced growth rate; growth rate was not related to poor gait. 6. Controlling the ducks' environment, particularly temperature, humidity, litter moisture and ammonia is crucial to duck welfare. Effective ventilation systems, high quality straw and access to some form of open water were considered important for duck welfare.
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