Context. Mapping distant worlds is the next frontier for exoplanet infrared (IR) photometry studies. Ultimately, constraining spatial and temporal properties of an exoplanet atmosphere (e.g., its ...temperature) will provide further insight into its physics. For tidally-locked hot Jupiters that transit and are eclipsed by their host star, the first steps are now possible. Aims. Our aim is to constrain an exoplanet’s (1) shape, (2) brightness distribution (BD) and (3) system parameters from its phase curve and eclipse measurements. In particular, we rely on the secondary-eclipse scanning which is obtained while an exoplanet is gradually masked by its host star. Methods. We use archived Spitzer/IRAC 8-μm data of HD 189733 (six transits, eight secondary eclipses, and a phase curve) in a global Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) procedure for mitigating systematics. We also include HD 189733’s out-of-transit radial velocity (RV) measurements to assess their incidence on the inferences obtained solely from the photometry. Results. We find a 6σ deviation from the expected occultation of a uniformly-bright disk. This deviation emerges mainly from a large-scale hot spot in HD 189733b’s atmosphere, not from HD 189733b’s shape. We indicate that the correlation of the exoplanet orbital eccentricity, e, and BD (“uniform time offset”) does also depend on the stellar density, ρ⋆, and the exoplanet impact parameter, b (“e-b-ρ⋆-BD correlation”). For HD 189733b, we find that relaxing the eccentricity constraint and using more complex BDs lead to lower stellar/planetary densities and a more localized and latitudinally-shifted hot spot. We, therefore, show that the light curve of an exoplanet does not constrain uniquely its brightness peak localization. Finally, we obtain an improved constraint on the upper limit of HD 189733b’s orbital eccentricity, e ≤ 0.011 (95% confidence), when including HD 189733’s RV measurements. Conclusions. Reanalysis of archived HD 189733’s data constrains HD 189733b’s shape and BD at 8 μm. Our study provides new insights into the analysis of exoplanet light curves and a proper framework for future eclipse-scanning observations. In particular, observations of the same exoplanet at different wavelengths could improve the constraints on HD 189733’s system parameters while ultimately yielding a large-scale time-dependent 3D map of HD 189733b’s atmosphere. Finally, we discuss the perspective of extending our method to observations in the visible (e.g., Kepler data), in particular to better understand exoplanet albedos.
Context.
Sites for next-generation telescopes are chosen decades before the first light of a telescope. Site selection is usually based on recent measurements over a period that is too short to ...account for long-term changes in observing conditions such as those arising from anthropogenic climate change. For astronomical facilities with a typical lifetime of 30 yr, it is therefore essential to be aware of climate evolution to optimise observing time.
Aims.
In this study, we analyse trends in astronomical observing conditions for eight sites. Most sites either already host telescopes that provide in situ measurements of weather parameters or are candidates for hosting next-generation telescopes. For a fine representation of orography, we use the highest resolution global climate model (GCM) ensemble available provided by the high-resolution model intercomparison project and developed as part of the European Union Horizon 2020 PRIMAVERA project.
Methods.
We evaluate atmosphere-only and coupled PRIMAVERA GCM historical simulations against in situ measurements and the fifth generation atmospheric reanalysis (ERA5) of the European centre for medium-range weather forecasts for the period 1979–2014. The projections of changes in current site conditions are then analysed for the period 2015–2050 using PRIMAVERA future climate simulations.
Results.
Over most sites, we find that PRIMAVERA GCMs show a good agreement in temperature, specific humidity, and precipitable water vapour compared to in situ observations and ERA5. The ability of PRIMAVERA to simulate those variables increases confidence in their projections. For those variables, the model ensemble projects an increasing trend for all sites, which will result in progressively poorer astronomical observing conditions compared to current conditions. On the other hand, no significant trends are projected for relative humidity, cloud cover, or astronomical seeing and PRIMAVERA does not simulate these variables well compared to observations and reanalyses. Therefore, there is little confidence in these projections.
Conclusions.
Our results show that climate change will negatively impact the quality of astronomical observations and is likely to increase time lost due to bad site conditions. We stress that it is essential for astronomers to include long-term climate projections in their process for site selection and monitoring. We show that high-resolution GCMs can be used to analyse the effect of climate change on site characteristics of next-generation telescopes.
The ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1 hosts seven Earth-size transiting planets, some of which could harbor liquid water on their surfaces. Ultraviolet observations are essential to measuring their ...high-energy irradiation and searching for photodissociated water escaping from their putative atmospheres. Our new observations of the TRAPPIST-1 Ly line during the transit of TRAPPIST-1c show an evolution of the star emission over three months, preventing us from assessing the presence of an extended hydrogen exosphere. Based on the current knowledge of the stellar irradiation, we investigated the likely history of water loss in the system. Planets b to d might still be in a runaway phase, and planets within the orbit of TRAPPIST-1g could have lost more than 20 Earth oceans after 8 Gyr of hydrodynamic escape. However, TRAPPIST-1e to h might have lost less than three Earth oceans if hydrodynamic escape stopped once they entered the habitable zone (HZ). We caution that these estimates remain limited by the large uncertainty on the planet masses. They likely represent upper limits on the actual water loss because our assumptions maximize the X-rays to ultraviolet-driven escape, while photodissociation in the upper atmospheres should be the limiting process. Late-stage outgassing could also have contributed significant amounts of water for the outer, more massive planets after they entered the HZ. While our results suggest that the outer planets are the best candidates to search for water with the JWST, they also highlight the need for theoretical studies and complementary observations in all wavelength domains to determine the nature of the TRAPPIST-1 planets and their potential habitability.
Early 2017 observations of TRAPPIST-1 with Spitzer Delrez, L; Gillon, M; Triaud, A H M J ...
Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
04/2018, Letnik:
475, Številka:
3
Journal Article, Web Resource
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
Abstract
The recently detected TRAPPIST-1 planetary system, with its seven planets transiting a nearby ultracool dwarf star, offers the first opportunity to perform comparative exoplanetology of ...temperate Earth-sized worlds. To further advance our understanding of these planets’ compositions, energy budgets, and dynamics, we are carrying out an intensive photometric monitoring campaign of their transits with the Spitzer Space Telescope. In this context, we present 60 new transits of the TRAPPIST-1 planets observed with Spitzer/Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) in 2017 February and March. We combine these observations with previously published Spitzer transit photometry and perform a global analysis of the resulting extensive data set. This analysis refines the transit parameters and provides revised values for the planets’ physical parameters, notably their radii, using updated properties for the star. As part of our study, we also measure precise transit timings that will be used in a companion paper to refine the planets’ masses and compositions using the transit timing variations method. TRAPPIST-1 shows a very low level of low-frequency variability in the IRAC 4.5-μm band, with a photometric RMS of only 0.11 per cent at a 123-s cadence. We do not detect any evidence of a (quasi-)periodic signal related to stellar rotation. We also analyse the transit light curves individually, to search for possible variations in the transit parameters of each planet due to stellar variability, and find that the Spitzer transits of the planets are mostly immune to the effects of stellar variations. These results are encouraging for forthcoming transmission spectroscopy observations of the TRAPPIST-1 planets with the James Webb Space Telescope.
Abstract
The TRAPPIST-1 planetary system provides an exceptional opportunity for the atmospheric characterization of temperate terrestrial exoplanets with the upcoming
James Webb Space Telescope
(
...JWST
). Assessing the potential impact of stellar contamination on the planets’ transit transmission spectra is an essential precursor to this characterization. Planetary transits themselves can be used to scan the stellar photosphere and to constrain its heterogeneity through transit depth variations in time and wavelength. In this context, we present our analysis of 169 transits observed in the optical from space with
K2
and from the ground with the SPECULOOS and Liverpool telescopes. Combining our measured transit depths with literature results gathered in the mid-/near-IR with
Spitzer
/IRAC and
HST
/WFC3, we construct the broadband transmission spectra of the TRAPPIST-1 planets over the 0.8–4.5
μ
m spectral range. While planet b, d, and f spectra show some structures at the 200–300 ppm level, the four others are globally flat. Even if we cannot discard their instrumental origins, two scenarios seem to be favored by the data: a stellar photosphere dominated by a few high-latitude giant (cold) spots, or, alternatively, by a few small and hot (3500–4000 K) faculae. In both cases, the stellar contamination of the transit transmission spectra is expected to be less dramatic than predicted in recent papers. Nevertheless, based on our results, stellar contamination can still be of comparable or greater order than planetary atmospheric signals at certain wavelengths. Understanding and correcting the effects of stellar heterogeneity therefore appears essential for preparing for the exploration of TRAPPIST-1 with
JWST
.
Context. GJ 436b is one of the few transiting warm Neptunes for which a detailed characterisation of the atmosphere is possible, whereas its non-negligible orbital eccentricity calls for further ...investigation. Independent analyses of several individual datasets obtained with Spitzer have led to contradicting results attributed to the different techniques used to treat the instrumental effects. Aims. We aim at investigating these previous controversial results and developing our knowledge of the system based on the full Spitzer photometry dataset combined with new Doppler measurements obtained with the HARPS spectrograph. We also want to search for additional planets. Methods. We optimise aperture photometry techniques and the photometric deconvolution algorithm DECPHOT to improve the data reduction of the Spitzer photometry spanning wavelengths from 3–24 μm. Adding the high-precision HARPS radial velocity data, we undertake a Bayesian global analysis of the system considering both instrumental and stellar effects on the flux variation. Results. We present a refined radius estimate of RP = 4.10 ± 0.16 R⊕ , mass MP = 25.4 ± 2.1 M⊕, and eccentricity e = 0.162 ± 0.004 for GJ 436b. Our measured transit depths remain constant in time and wavelength, in disagreement with the results of previous studies. In addition, we find that the post-occultation flare-like structure at 3.6 μm that led to divergent results on the occultation depth measurement is spurious. We obtain occultation depths at 3.6, 5.8, and 8.0 μm that are shallower than in previous works, in particular at 3.6 μm. However, these depths still appear consistent with a metal-rich atmosphere depleted in methane and enhanced in CO/CO2, although perhaps less than previously thought. We could not detect a significant orbital modulation in the 8 μm phase curve. We find no evidence of a potential planetary companion, stellar activity, or a stellar spin-orbit misalignment. Conclusions. Recent theoretical models invoking high-metallicity atmospheres for warm Neptunes are a reasonable match to our results, but we encourage new modelling efforts based on our revised data. Future observations covering a wide wavelength range of GJ 436b and other Neptune-class exoplanets will further illuminate their atmosphere properties, whilst future accurate radial velocity measurements might explain the eccentricity.
The 55 Cancri system reassessed Bourrier, V.; Dumusque, X.; Dorn, C. ...
Astronomy and astrophysics (Berlin),
11/2018, Letnik:
619
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
Orbiting a bright, nearby star the 55 Cnc system offers a rare opportunity to study a multiplanet system that has a wide range of planetary masses and orbital distances. Using two decades of ...photometry and spectroscopy data, we have measured the rotation of the host star and its solar-like magnetic cycle. Accounting for this cycle in our velocimetric analysis of the system allows us to revise the properties of the outermost giant planet and its four planetary companions. The innermost planet 55 Cnc e is an unusually close-in super-Earth, whose transits have allowed for detailed follow-up studies. Recent observations favor the presence of a substantial atmosphere yet its composition, and the nature of the planet, remain unknown. We combined our derived planet mass (Mp = 8.0 ± 0.3 MEarth) with refined measurement of its optical radius derived from HST/STIS observations (Rp = 1.88 ± 0.03 REarth over 530–750 nm) to revise the density of 55 Cnc e (ρ = 6.7 ± 0.4 g cm−3). Based on these revised properties we have characterized possible interiors of 55 Cnc e using a generalized Bayesian model. We confirm that the planet is likely surrounded by a heavyweight atmosphere, contributing a few percents of the planet radius. While we cannot exclude the presence of a water layer underneath the atmosphere, this scenario is unlikely given the observations of the planet across the entire spectrum and its strong irradiation. Follow-up observations of the system in photometry and in spectroscopy over different time-scales are needed to further investigate the nature and origin of this iconic super-Earth.
Context. Transmission spectroscopy has proven to be a useful tool for the study of exoplanet atmospheres, because the absorption and scattering signatures of the atmosphere manifest themselves as ...variations in the planetary transit depth. Several planets have been studied with this technique, leading to the detection of a small number of elements and molecules (Na, K, H2O), but also revealing that many planets show flat transmission spectra consistent with the presence of opaque high-altitude clouds. Aims. We apply this technique to the MP = 0.40MJ, Rp = 1.20RJ, P = 2.78 d planet WASP-49b, aiming to characterize its transmission spectrum between 0.73 and 1 ¯m and search for the features of K and H2O. Owing to its density and temperature, the planet is predicted to possess an extended atmosphere and is thus a good target for transmission spectroscopy. Methods. Three transits of WASP-49b have been observed with the FORS2 instrument installed at the VLT/UT1 telescope at the ESO Paranal site. We used FORS2 in MXU mode with grism GRIS_600z, producing simultaneous multiwavelength transit light curves throughout the i′ and z′ bands. We combined these data with independent broadband photometry from the Euler and TRAPPIST telescopes to obtain a good measurement of the transit shape. Strong correlated noise structures are present in the FORS2 light curves, which are due to rotating flat-field structures that are introduced by inhomogeneities of the linear atmospheric dispersion corrector’s transparency. We accounted for these structures by constructing common noise models from the residuals of light curves bearing the same noise structures and used them together with simple parametric models to infer the transmission spectrum. Results. We present three independent transmission spectra of WASP-49b between 0.73 and 1.02 ¯m, as well as a transmission spectrum between 0.65 and 1.02 ¯m from the combined analysis of FORS2 and broadband data. The results obtained from the three individual epochs agree well. The transmission spectrum of WASP-49b is best fit by atmospheric models containing a cloud deck at pressure levels of 1 mbar or lower.
Context.
55 Cnc e is in a 0.73 day orbit transiting a Sun-like star. It has been observed that the occultation depth of this super-Earth, with a mass of 8
M
⊕
and radius of 2
R
⊕
, changes ...significantly over time at mid-infrared wavelengths. Observations with
Spitzer
measured a change in its day-side brightness temperature of 1200 K, possibly driven by volcanic activity, magnetic star-planet interaction, or the presence of a circumstellar torus of dust.
Aims.
Previous evidence for the variability in occultation was in the infrared range. Here we aim to explore if the variability also exists in the optical range.
Methods.
The Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) observed 55 Cnc during sectors 21, 44, and 46. We carefully detrended the data and fitted a transit and occultation model for each sector in a Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) routine. In a later stage, we used the leave-one-out (LOO) cross-validation statistic to compare with a model of constant occultation for the complete set and a model with no occultation.
Results.
We report an occultation depth of 8 ± 2.5 ppm for the complete set of TESS observations. In particular, we measured a depth of 15 ± 4 ppm for sector 21, while for sector 44 we detected no occultation. In sector 46 we measured a weak occultation of 8 ± 5 ppm. The occultation depth varies from one sector to the next between 1.6 and 3.4
σ
significance. We derived the possible contribution on reflected light and thermal emission and set an upper limit on the geometric albedo. Based on our model comparison, the presence of an occultation is favoured considerably over no occultation, and the model with varying occultation across sectors takes most of the statistical weight.
Conclusions.
Our analysis confirms a detection of the occultation in TESS. Moreover, our results weakly lean towards a varying occultation depth between each sector, while the transit depth is constant across visits.
Context.
With more than 1000 h of observation from Feb. 2016 to Oct. 2019, the
Spitzer
Exploration Program Red Worlds (ID: 13067, 13175 and 14223) exclusively targeted TRAPPIST-1, a nearby (12 pc) ...ultracool dwarf star, finding that it is orbited by seven transiting Earth-sized planets. At least three of these planets orbit within the classical habitable zone of the star, and all of them are well-suited for a detailed atmospheric characterization with the upcoming JWST.
Aims.
The main goals of the
Spitzer
Red Worlds program were (1) to explore the system for new transiting planets, (2) to intensively monitor the planets’ transits to yield the strongest possible constraints on their masses, sizes, compositions, and dynamics, and (3) to assess the infrared variability of the host star. In this paper, we present the global results of the project.
Methods.
We analyzed 88 new transits and combined them with 100 previously analyzed transits, for a total of 188 transits observed at 3.6 or 4.5
μ
m. For a comprehensive study, we analyzed all light curves both individually and globally. We also analyzed 29 occultations (secondary eclipses) of planet b and eight occultations of planet c observed at 4.5
μ
m to constrain the brightness temperatures of their daysides.
Results.
We identify several orphan transit-like structures in our
Spitzer
photometry, but all of them are of low significance. We do not confirm any new transiting planets. We do not detect any significant variation of the transit depths of the planets throughout the different campaigns. Comparing our individual and global analyses of the transits, we estimate for TRAPPIST-1 transit depth measurements mean noise floors of ~35 and 25 ppm in channels 1 and 2 of
Spitzer
/IRAC, respectively. We estimate that most of this noise floor is of instrumental origins and due to the large inter-pixel inhomogeneity of IRAC InSb arrays, and that the much better interpixel homogeneity of JWST instruments should result in noise floors as low as 10 ppm, which is low enough to enable the atmospheric characterization of the planets by transit transmission spectroscopy. Our analysis reveals a few outlier transits, but we cannot conclude whether or not they correspond to spot or faculae crossing events. We construct updated broadband transmission spectra for all seven planets which show consistent transit depths between the two
Spitzer
channels. Although we are limited by instrumental precision, the combined transmission spectrum of planet b to g tells us that their atmospheres seem unlikely to be CH
4
-dominated. We identify and model five distinct high energy flares in the whole dataset, and discuss our results in the context of habitability. Finally, we fail to detect occultation signals of planets b and c at 4.5
μ
m, and can only set 3-
σ
upper limits on their dayside brightness temperatures (611 K for b 586 K for c).
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