Schizophrenia (SZ) is a mental disorder whereby due to the secretion of specific chemicals in the brain, the function of some brain regions is out of balance, leading to the lack of coordination ...between thoughts, actions, and emotions. This study provides various intelligent deep learning (DL)-based methods for automated SZ diagnosis
electroencephalography (EEG) signals. The obtained results are compared with those of conventional intelligent methods. To implement the proposed methods, the dataset of the Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology in Warsaw, Poland, has been used. First, EEG signals were divided into 25 s time frames and then were normalized by
-score or norm L2. In the classification step, two different approaches were considered for SZ diagnosis
EEG signals. In this step, the classification of EEG signals was first carried out by conventional machine learning methods, e.g., support vector machine,
-nearest neighbors, decision tree, naïve Bayes, random forest, extremely randomized trees, and bagging. Various proposed DL models, namely, long short-term memories (LSTMs), one-dimensional convolutional networks (1D-CNNs), and 1D-CNN-LSTMs, were used in the following. In this step, the DL models were implemented and compared with different activation functions. Among the proposed DL models, the CNN-LSTM architecture has had the best performance. In this architecture, the ReLU activation function with the
-score and L2-combined normalization was used. The proposed CNN-LSTM model has achieved an accuracy percentage of 99.25%, better than the results of most former studies in this field. It is worth mentioning that to perform all simulations, the
-fold cross-validation method with
= 5 has been used.
In this paper, a novel medical image encryption method based on multi-mode synchronization of hyper-chaotic systems is presented. The synchronization of hyper-chaotic systems is of great significance ...in secure communication tasks such as encryption of images. Multi-mode synchronization is a novel and highly complex issue, especially if there is uncertainty and disturbance. In this work, an adaptive-robust controller is designed for multimode synchronized chaotic systems with variable and unknown parameters, despite the bounded disturbance and uncertainty with a known function in two modes. In the first case, it is a main system with some response systems, and in the second case, it is a circular synchronization. Using theorems it is proved that the two synchronization methods are equivalent. Our results show that, we are able to obtain the convergence of synchronization error and parameter estimation error to zero using Lyapunov's method. The new laws to update time-varying parameters, estimating disturbance and uncertainty bounds are proposed such that stability of system is guaranteed. To assess the performance of the proposed synchronization method, various statistical analyzes were carried out on the encrypted medical images and standard benchmark images. The results show effective performance of the proposed synchronization technique in the medical images encryption for telemedicine application.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a brain condition characterized by diverse signs and symptoms that appear in early childhood. ASD is also associated with communication deficits and repetitive ...behavior in affected individuals. Various ASD detection methods have been developed, including neuroimaging modalities and psychological tests. Among these methods, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) imaging modalities are of paramount importance to physicians. Clinicians rely on MRI modalities to diagnose ASD accurately. The MRI modalities are non-invasive methods that include functional (fMRI) and structural (sMRI) neuroimaging methods. However, diagnosing ASD with fMRI and sMRI for specialists is often laborious and time-consuming; therefore, several computer-aided design systems (CADS) based on artificial intelligence (AI) have been developed to assist specialist physicians. Conventional machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) are the most popular schemes of AI used for diagnosing ASD. This study aims to review the automated detection of ASD using AI. We review several CADS that have been developed using ML techniques for the automated diagnosis of ASD using MRI modalities. There has been very limited work on the use of DL techniques to develop automated diagnostic models for ASD. A summary of the studies developed using DL is provided in the Supplementary Appendix. Then, the challenges encountered during the automated diagnosis of ASD using MRI and AI techniques are described in detail. Additionally, a graphical comparison of studies using ML and DL to diagnose ASD automatically is discussed. We suggest future approaches to detecting ASDs using AI techniques and MRI neuroimaging.
•Presenting an unsupervised pretraining method to overcome overfitting using GAN.•The unsupervised pretraining allow using of similar unlabeled datasets.•This method can be used for training complex ...networks on small datasets.•State-of-the-art results are obtained on a brain tumor classification dataset.
In this paper, a new deep learning method for tumor classification in MR images is presented. A deep neural network is first pre-trained as a discriminator in a generative adversarial network (GAN) on different datasets of MR images to extract robust features and to learn the structure of MR images in its convolutional layers. Then the fully connected layers are replaced and the whole deep network is trained as a classifier to distinguish three tumor classes. The deep neural network classifier has six layers and about 1.7 million weight parameters. Pre-training as a discriminator of a GAN together with other techniques such as data augmentations (image rotation and mirroring) and dropout prevent the network from overtraining on a relatively small dataset. This method is applied to an MRI data set consists of 3064 T1-CE MR images from 233 patients, 13 images from each patient on average, with three different brain tumor types: meningioma (708 images), glioma (1426 images), and pituitary tumor (930 images). 5-Fold cross-validation is used to evaluate the performance of overall design, achieving the highest accuracy as compared to state-of-art methods.
In this paper, a robust adaptive control strategy is proposed to synchronize a class of uncertain chaotic systems with unknown time delays. Using Lyapunov theory and Lipschitz conditions in chaotic ...systems, the necessary adaptation rules for estimating uncertain parameters and unknown time delays are determined. Based on the proposed adaptation rules, an adaptive controller is recommended for the robust synchronization of the aforementioned uncertain systems that prove the robust stability of the proposed control mechanism utilizing the Lyapunov theorem. Finally, to evaluate the proposed robust and adaptive control mechanism, the synchronization of two Jerk chaotic systems with finite non-linear uncertainty and external disturbances as well as unknown fixed and variable time delays are simulated. The simulation results confirm the ability of the proposed control mechanism in robust synchronization of the uncertain chaotic systems as well as to estimate uncertain and unknown parameters.
Epilepsy, a brain disease generally associated with seizures, has tremendous effects on people’s quality of life. Diagnosis of epileptic seizures is commonly performed on electroencephalography (EEG) ...signals, and by using computer-aided diagnosis systems (CADS), neurologists can diagnose epileptic seizure stages more accurately. In these systems, a mandatory stage is feature extraction, performed by handcrafting features or learning them, ordinarily by a deep neural net. While researches in this field commonly show the value of a group of limited features, yet an accurate comparison between different suggested features is essential. In this article, first, a comparison between the importance of 50 different handcrafted features for seizure detection is presented. Additionally, the computational complexity of features is investigated as well. Then the best features based on Fisher scores are picked to classify signals on a benchmark dataset for evaluation. Additionally, a convolutional autoencoder with five layers is applied to learn features in order to have a complete comparison among feature extraction approaches. Finally, a hybrid method is employed, which combines handcrafted features and encoding of autoencoder to reach high performance in seizure detection in EEG signals.
•A comparison of fifty features of different types for seizure detection is presented.•Features are from time and frequency domain with non-linear ones.•Computational complexity of each feature is also presented.•Additionally, those features are compared to learned features by proposed CNN-AE.•Finally, employing a hybrid method from all features best results are obtained.
A variety of screening approaches have been proposed to diagnose epileptic seizures, using electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) modalities. Artificial intelligence ...encompasses a variety of areas, and one of its branches is deep learning (DL). Before the rise of DL, conventional machine learning algorithms involving feature extraction were performed. This limited their performance to the ability of those handcrafting the features. However, in DL, the extraction of features and classification are entirely automated. The advent of these techniques in many areas of medicine, such as in the diagnosis of epileptic seizures, has made significant advances. In this study, a comprehensive overview of works focused on automated epileptic seizure detection using DL techniques and neuroimaging modalities is presented. Various methods proposed to diagnose epileptic seizures automatically using EEG and MRI modalities are described. In addition, rehabilitation systems developed for epileptic seizures using DL have been analyzed, and a summary is provided. The rehabilitation tools include cloud computing techniques and hardware required for implementation of DL algorithms. The important challenges in accurate detection of automated epileptic seizures using DL with EEG and MRI modalities are discussed. The advantages and limitations in employing DL-based techniques for epileptic seizures diagnosis are presented. Finally, the most promising DL models proposed and possible future works on automated epileptic seizure detection are delineated.
•Automatic detection of epileptic seizures in EEG signals using new CADS based on artificial intelligence techniques.•The combining of fuzzy entropies for features extraction.•Autoencoder with ...proposed layers is used for dimension reduction of feature matrix.•The ANFIS classifier with BS optimizer is used for classification.
Epileptic seizures are one of the most crucial neurological disorders, and their early diagnosis will help the clinicians to provide accurate treatment for the patients. The electroencephalogram (EEG) signals are widely used for epileptic seizures detection, which provides specialists with substantial information about the functioning of the brain. In this paper, a novel diagnostic procedure using fuzzy theory and deep learning techniques is introduced. The proposed method is evaluated on the Bonn University dataset with six classification combinations and also on the Freiburg dataset. The tunable-Q wavelet transform (TQWT) is employed to decompose the EEG signals into different sub-bands. In the feature extraction step, 13 different fuzzy entropies are calculated from different sub-bands of TQWT, and their computational complexities are calculated to help researchers choose the best set for various tasks. In the following, an autoencoder (AE) with six layers is employed for dimensionality reduction. Finally, the standard adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), and also its variants with grasshopper optimization algorithm (ANFIS-GOA), particle swarm optimization (ANFIS-PSO), and breeding swarm optimization (ANFIS-BS) methods are used for classification. Using our proposed method, ANFIS-BS method has obtained an accuracy of 99.74% in classifying into two classes and an accuracy of 99.46% in ternary classification on the Bonn dataset and 99.28% on the Freiburg dataset, reaching state-of-the-art performances on both of them.
•Review of papers on the diagnosis of brain diseases using the fusion of neuroimaging modalities is presented.•For each brain disease, the most appropriate neuroimaging modalities and best ...combinations are introduced.•Advantages and disadvantages of fusion levels and different modalities are introduced.•Details of various types of deep neural networks used for the task at hand are also examined.•Finally, future directions and challenges in the field are discussed.
Brain diseases, including tumors and mental and neurological disorders, seriously threaten the health and well-being of millions of people worldwide. Structural and functional neuroimaging modalities are commonly used by physicians to aid the diagnosis of brain diseases. In clinical settings, specialist doctors typically fuse the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data with other neuroimaging modalities for brain disease detection. As these two approaches offer complementary information, fusing these neuroimaging modalities helps physicians accurately diagnose brain diseases. Typically, fusion is performed between a functional and a structural neuroimaging modality. Because the functional modality can complement the structural modality information, thus improving the performance for the diagnosis of brain diseases by specialists. However, analyzing the fusion of neuroimaging modalities is difficult for specialist doctors. Deep Learning (DL) is a branch of artificial intelligence that has shown superior performances compared to more conventional methods in tasks such as brain disease detection from neuroimaging modalities. This work presents a comprehensive review paper in the field of brain disease detection from the fusion of neuroimaging modalities using DL models like convolutional neural networks (CNNs), recurrent neural networks (RNNs), pretrained, generative adversarial networks (GANs), and Autoencoders (AEs). First, neuroimaging modalities and the need for fusion are discussed. Then, review papers published in the field of neuroimaging multimodalities using AI techniques are explored. Moreover, fusion levels based on DL methods, including input, layer, and decision, with related studies conducted on diagnosing brain diseases, are discussed. Other sections present the most important challenges for diagnosing brain diseases from the fusion of neuroimaging modalities. In the discussion section, the details of previous research on the fusion of neuroimaging modalities based on MRI and DL models are reported. In the following, the most important future directions include Datasets, DA, imbalanced data, DL models, explainable AI, and hardware resources are presented. Finally, the main findings of this study are presented in the conclusion section.
Schizophrenia (SZ) is a mental disorder that typically emerges in late adolescence or early adulthood. It reduces the life expectancy of patients by 15 years. Abnormal behavior, perception of ...emotions, social relationships, and reality perception are among its most significant symptoms. Past studies have revealed that SZ affects the temporal and anterior lobes of hippocampus regions of the brain. Also, increased volume of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and decreased volume of white and gray matter can be observed due to this disease. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the popular neuroimaging technique used to explore structural/functional brain abnormalities in SZ disorder, owing to its high spatial resolution. Various artificial intelligence (AI) techniques have been employed with advanced image/signal processing methods to accurately diagnose SZ. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of studies conducted on the automated diagnosis of SZ using MRI modalities. First, an AI-based computer aided-diagnosis system (CADS) for SZ diagnosis and its relevant sections are presented. Then, this section introduces the most important conventional machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) techniques in the diagnosis of diagnosing SZ. A comprehensive comparison is also made between ML and DL studies in the discussion section. In the following, the most important challenges in diagnosing SZ are addressed. Future works in diagnosing SZ using AI techniques and MRI modalities are recommended in another section. Results, conclusion, and research findings are also presented at the end.
•A thorough review of the detection of schizophrenia with artificial intelligence techniques are presented.•A discussion is done on various MRI neuroimaging modalities and their pros/cons for the task at hand.•Papers published from 2016 are reviewed and structured in tabular form.•All main datasets with their specificities are listed and analyzed.•Challenges and possible future directions are discussed comprehensively.
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