Context. Detecting massive satellites that orbit extrasolar planets has now become feasible, which led naturally to questions about the habitability of exomoons. In a previous study we presented ...constraints on the habitability of moons from stellar and planetary illumination as well as from tidal heating. Aims. Here I refine our model by including the effect of eclipses on the orbit-averaged illumination. I then apply an analytic approximation for the Hill stability of a satellite to identify the range of stellar and planetary masses in which moons can be habitable. Moons in low-mass stellar systems must orbit their planet very closely to remain bounded, which puts them at risk of strong tidal heating. Methods. I first describe the effect of eclipses on the stellar illumination of satellites. Then I calculate the orbit-averaged energy flux, which includes illumination from the planet and tidal heating to parametrize exomoon habitability as a function of stellar mass, planetary mass, and planet-moon orbital eccentricity. The habitability limit is defined by a scaling relation at which a moon loses its water by the runaway greenhouse process. As a working hypothesis, orbital stability is assumed if the moon’s orbital period is less than 1/9 of the planet’s orbital period. Results. Due to eclipses, a satellite in a close orbit can experience a reduction in orbit-averaged stellar flux by up to about 6%. The smaller the semi-major axis and the lower the inclination of the moon’s orbit, the stronger the reduction. I find a lower mass limit of ≈ 0.2 M⊙ for exomoon host stars that allows a moon to receive an orbit-averaged stellar flux comparable to the Earth’s, with which it can also avoid the runaway greenhouse effect. Precise estimates depend on the satellite’s orbital eccentricity. Deleterious effects on exomoon habitability may occur up to ≈ 0.5 M⊙ if the satellite’s eccentricity is ≳ 0.05. Conclusions. Although the traditional habitable zone lies close to low-mass stars, which allows for many transits of planet-moon binaries within a given observation cycle, resources should not be spent to trace habitable satellites around them. Gravitational perturbations by the close star, another planet, or another satellite induce eccentricities that likely make any moon uninhabitable. Estimates for individual systems require dynamical simulations that include perturbations among all bodies and tidal heating in the satellite.
Beyond Earth-like planets, moons can be habitable, too. No exomoons have been securely detected, but they could be extremely abundant. Young Jovian planets can be as hot as late M stars, with ...effective temperatures of up to 2000 K. Transits of their moons might be detectable in their infrared photometric light curves if the planets are sufficiently separated (≳10 AU) from the stars to be directly imaged. The moons will be heated by radiation from their young planets and potentially by tidal friction. Although stellar illumination will be weak beyond 5 AU, these alternative energy sources could liquify surface water on exomoons for hundreds of Myr. A Mars-mass H2O-rich moon around β Pic b would have a transit depth of 1.5 × 10-3, in reach of near-future technology.
To review the evidence about the impact of hypoglycemia on patients with diabetes that has become available since the past reviews of this subject by the American Diabetes Association and The ...Endocrine Society and to provide guidance about how this new information should be incorporated into clinical practice.
Five members of the American Diabetes Association and five members of The Endocrine Society with expertise in different aspects of hypoglycemia were invited by the Chair, who is a member of both, to participate in a planning conference call and a 2-day meeting that was also attended by staff from both organizations. Subsequent communications took place via e-mail and phone calls. The writing group consisted of those invitees who participated in the writing of the manuscript. The workgroup meeting was supported by educational grants to the American Diabetes Association from Lilly USA, LLC and Novo Nordisk and sponsorship to the American Diabetes Association from Sanofi. The sponsors had no input into the development of or content of the report.
The writing group considered data from recent clinical trials and other studies to update the prior workgroup report. Unpublished data were not used. Expert opinion was used to develop some conclusions.
Consensus was achieved by group discussion during conference calls and face-to-face meetings, as well as by iterative revisions of the written document. The document was reviewed and approved by the American Diabetes Association's Professional Practice Committee in October 2012 and approved by the Executive Committee of the Board of Directors in November 2012 and was reviewed and approved by The Endocrine Society's Clinical Affairs Core Committee in October 2012 and by Council in November 2012.
The workgroup reconfirmed the previous definitions of hypoglycemia in diabetes, reviewed the implications of hypoglycemia on both short- and long-term outcomes, considered the implications of hypoglycemia on treatment outcomes, presented strategies to prevent hypoglycemia, and identified knowledge gaps that should be addressed by future research. In addition, tools for patients to report hypoglycemia at each visit and for clinicians to document counseling are provided.
The islet ghrelin cell Wierup, Nils; Sundler, Frank; Heller, R Scott
Journal of molecular endocrinology,
02/2014, Letnik:
52, Številka:
1
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
The islets of Langerhans are key regulators of glucose homeostasis and have been known as a structure for almost one and a half centuries. During the twentieth century several different cell types ...were described in the islets of different species and at different developmental stages. Six cell types with identified hormonal product have been described so far by the use of histochemical staining methods, transmission electron microscopy, and immunohistochemistry. Thus, glucagon-producing α-cells, insulin-producing β-cells, somatostatin-producing δ-cells, pancreatic polypeptide-producing PP-cells, serotonin-producing enterochromaffin-cells, and gastrin-producing G-cells have all been found in the mammalian pancreas at least at some developmental stage. Species differences are at hand and age-related differences are also to be considered. Eleven years ago a novel cell type, the ghrelin cell, was discovered in the human islets. Subsequent studies have shown the presence of islet ghrelin cells in several animals, including mouse, rat, gerbils, and fish. The developmental regulation of ghrelin cells in the islets of mice has gained a lot of interest and several studies have added important pieces to the puzzle of molecular mechanisms and the genetic regulation that lead to differentiation into mature ghrelin cells. A body of evidence has shown that ghrelin is an insulinostatic hormone, and the potential for blockade of ghrelin signalling as a therapeutic avenue for type 2 diabetes is intriguing. Furthermore, ghrelin-expressing pancreatic tumours have been reported and ghrelin needs to be taken into account when diagnosing pancreatic tumours. In this review article, we summarise the knowledge about islet ghrelin cells obtained so far.
The savannah biome of sub-Saharan Africa harbours the highest diversity of ungulates (hoofed mammals) on Earth. In this review, we compile population genetic data from 19 codistributed ungulate taxa ...of the savannah biome and find striking concordance in the phylogeographic structuring of species. Data from across taxa reveal distinct regional lineages, which reflect the survival and divergence of populations in isolated savannah refugia during the climatic oscillations of the Pleistocene. Data from taxa across trophic levels suggest distinct savannah refugia were present in West, East, Southern and South-West Africa. Furthermore, differing Pleistocene evolutionary biogeographic scenarios are proposed for East and Southern Africa, supported by palaeoclimatic data and the fossil record. Environmental instability in East Africa facilitated several spatial and temporal refugia and is reflected in the high inter- and intraspecific diversity of the region. In contrast, phylogeographic data suggest a stable, long-standing savannah refuge in the south.
A severe mismatch between the supply and demand of oxygen is the common feature of all types of shock. We present a newly developed, clinically oriented classification of the various types of shock ...and their therapeutic implications.
This review is based on pertinent publications (1990-2018) retrieved by a selective search in PubMed, and on the relevant guidelines and meta-analyses.
There are only four major categories of shock, each of which is mainly related to one of four organ systems. Hypovolemic shock relates to the blood and fluids compartment while distributive shock relates to the vascular system; cardiogenic shock arises from primary cardiac dysfunction; and obstructive shock arises from a blockage of the circulation. Hypovolemic shock is due to intravascular volume loss and is treated by fluid replacement with balanced crystalloids. Distributive shock, on the other hand, is a state of relative hypovolemia resulting from pathological redistribution of the absolute intravascular volume and is treated with a combination of vasoconstrictors and fluid replacement. Cardiogenic shock is due to inadequate function of the heart, which shall be treated, depending on the situation, with drugs, surgery, or other interventional procedures. In obstructive shock, hypoperfusion due to elevated resistance shall be treated with an immediate life-saving intervention.
The new classification is intended to facilitate the goal-driven treatment of shock in both the pre-hospital and the inpatient setting. A uniform treatment strategy should be established for each of the four types of shock.
Context. The first detection of a moon around an extrasolar planet (an “exomoon”) might be feasible with NASA’s Kepler or ESA’s upcoming PLATO space telescopes or with the future ground-based ...European Extremely Large Telescope. To guide observers and to use observational resources most efficiently, we need to know where the largest, most easily detected moons can form. Aims. We explore the possibility of large exomoons by following the movement of water (H2O) ice lines in the accretion disks around young super-Jovian planets. We want to know how the different heating sources in those disks affect the location of the H2O ice lines as a function of stellar and planetary distance. Methods. We simulate 2D rotationally symmetric accretion disks in hydrostatic equilibrium around super-Jovian exoplanets. The energy terms in our semi-analytical framework – (1) viscous heating; (2) planetary illumination; (3) accretional heating of the disk; and (4) stellar illumination – are fed by precomputed planet evolution models. We consider accreting planets with final masses between 1 and 12 Jupiter masses at distances between 1 and 20 AU to a solar type star. Results. Accretion disks around Jupiter-mass planets closer than about 4.5 AU to Sun-like stars do not feature H2O ice lines, whereas the most massive super-Jovians can form icy satellites as close as 3 AU to Sun-like stars. We derive an empirical formula for the total moon mass as a function of planetary mass and stellar distance and predict that super-Jovian planets forming beyond about 5 AU can host Mars-mass moons. Planetary illumination is the major heat source in the final stages of accretion around Jupiter-mass planets, whereas disks around the most massive super-Jovians are similarly heated by planetary illumination and viscous heating. This indicates a transition towards circumstellar accretion disks, where viscous heating dominates in the stellar vicinity. We also study a broad range of circumplanetary disk parameters for planets at 5.2 AU and find that the H2O ice lines are universally between about 15 and 30 Jupiter radii in the final stages of accretion when the last generation of moons is supposed to form. Conclusions. If the abundant population of super-Jovian planets around 1 AU formed in situ, then these planets should lack the previously predicted population of giant icy moons, because those planets’ disks did not host H2O ice in the final stages of accretion. But in the more likely case that these planets migrated to their current locations from beyond about 3 to 4.5 AU they might be orbited by large, water-rich moons. In this case, Mars-mass ocean moons might be common in the stellar habitable zones. Future exomoon detections and non-detections can provide powerful constraints on the formation and migration history of giant exoplanets.
Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) analogs are increasingly being used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. It is clear that these drugs lower blood glucose through an increase in insulin secretion and ...a lowering of glucagon secretion; in addition, they lower body weight and systolic blood pressure and increase heart rate. Using a new monoclonal antibody for immunohistochemistry, we detected GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) in important target organs in humans and monkeys. In the pancreas, GLP-1R was predominantly localized in β-cells with a markedly weaker expression in acinar cells. Pancreatic ductal epithelial cells did not express GLP-1R. In the kidney and lung, GLP-1R was exclusively expressed in smooth muscle cells in the walls of arteries and arterioles. In the heart, GLP-1R was localized in myocytes of the sinoatrial node. In the gastrointestinal tract, the highest GLP-1R expression was seen in the Brunner's gland in the duodenum, with lower level expression in parietal cells and smooth muscle cells in the muscularis externa in the stomach and in myenteric plexus neurons throughout the gut. No GLP-1R was seen in primate liver and thyroid. GLP-1R expression seen with immunohistochemistry was confirmed by functional expression using in situ ligand binding with 125I-GLP-1. In conclusion, these results give important new insight into the molecular mode of action of GLP-1 analogs by identifying the exact cellular localization of GLP-1R.
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