Chlorine gas is a toxic respiratory irritant that is considered a chemical threat agent because of the potential for release in industrial accidents or terrorist attacks. Chlorine inhalation damages ...the respiratory tract, including the airways and distal lung, and can result in acute lung injury. Some individuals exposed to chlorine experience a full recovery from acute injury, whereas others develop persistent adverse effects, such as respiratory symptoms, inflammation, and lung‐function decrements. In animal models, chlorine can produce persistent inflammation, remodeling, and obstruction in large or small airways, depending on species. Airways with pseudostratified epithelia are repaired efficiently, with surviving basal epithelial cells serving as progenitor cells that repopulate the complement of differentiated cell types. Distal airways lacking basal cells are repaired less efficiently, leading to chronic inflammation and fibrosis at these sites. Persistent chlorine‐induced airway disease in humans is treated with asthma medication to relieve symptoms. However, such treatment does not ameliorate the underlying disease pathogenesis, so treatments that are more effective at preventing initial development of airway disease after irritant gas exposure and at reversing established disease are needed.
Diabetes is strongly associated with systemic inflammation and oxidative stress, but its effect on pulmonary vascular disease and lung function has often been disregarded. Several studies identified ...restrictive lung disease and fibrotic changes in diabetic patients and in animal models of diabetes. While microvascular dysfunction is a well-known complication of diabetes, the mechanisms leading to diabetes-induced lung injury have largely been disregarded. We described the potential involvement of diabetes-induced platelet-endothelial interactions in perpetuating vascular inflammation and oxidative injury leading to fibrotic changes in the lung. Changes in nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activation and decreased NO bioavailability in the diabetic lung increase platelet activation and vascular injury and may account for platelet hyperreactivity reported in diabetic patients. Additionally, the Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway has been reported to mediate pancreatic islet damage, and is implicated in the onset of diabetes, inflammation and vascular injury. Many growth factors and diabetes-induced agonists act via the JAK/STAT pathway. Other studies reported the contribution of the JAK/STAT pathway to the regulation of the pulmonary fibrotic process but the role of this pathway in the development of diabetic lung fibrosis has not been considered. These observations may open new therapeutic perspectives for modulating multiple pathways to mitigate diabetes onset or its pulmonary consequences.
Acrolein is a highly toxic, volatile, unsaturated aldehyde generated during incomplete combustion as in tobacco smoke and indoor fires. Because the transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) ...channel mediates tobacco smoke-induced lung injury, we assessed its role in high-level acrolein-induced toxicity in mice. Acrolein (100–275ppm, 10–30min) caused upper airway epithelial sloughing, bradypnea and oral gasping, hypothermia, cardiac depression and mortality. Male wild-type mice (WT, C57BL/6; 5–52weeks) were significantly more sensitive to high-level acrolein than age-matched, female WT mice. Both male and female TRPA1-null mice were more sensitive to acrolein-induced mortality than age- and sex-matched WT mice. Acrolein exposure increased lung weight:body weight ratios and lung albumin and decreased plasma albumin to a greater extent in TRPA1-null than in WT mice. Lung and plasma protein-acrolein adducts were not increased in acrolein-exposed TRPA1-null mice compared with WT mice. To assess TRPA1-dependent protective mechanisms, respiratory parameters were monitored by telemetry. TRPA1-null mice had a slower onset of breathing rate suppression (‘respiratory braking’) than WT mice suggesting TRPA1 mediates this protective response. Surprisingly, WT male mice treated either with a TRPA1 antagonist (HC030031; 200mg/kg) alone or with combined TRPA1 (100mg/kg) and TRPV1 (capsazepine, 10mg/kg) antagonists at 30min post-acrolein exposure (i.e., “real world” delay in treatment) were significantly protected from acrolein-induced mortality. These data show TRPA1 protects against high-level acrolein-induced toxicity in a sex-dependent manner. Post-exposure TRPA1 antagonism also protected against acrolein-induced mortality attesting to a complex role of TRPA1 in cardiopulmonary injury.
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•TRPA1 protects mice against toxicity and mortality of inhaled high-level acrolein.•TRPA1 protection against inhaled high-level acrolein is sex-dependent in mice.•Age (5–52weeks old) was not a determinant of acrolein-induced mortality in mice.•TRPA1 antagonist is protective after inhaled high-level acrolein in male mice.
Chlorine is a widely used toxic compound that is considered a chemical threat agent. Chlorine inhalation injures airway epithelial cells, leading to pulmonary abnormalities. Efficient repair of ...injured epithelium is necessary to restore normal lung structure and function. The objective of the current study was to characterize repair of the tracheal epithelium after acute chlorine injury.
C57BL/6 mice were exposed to chlorine and injected with 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) to label proliferating cells prior to sacrifice and collection of tracheas on days 2, 4, 7, and 10 after exposure. Airway repair and restoration of a differentiated epithelium were examined by co-localization of EdU labeling with markers for the three major tracheal epithelial cell types keratin 5 (K5) and keratin 14 (K14) for basal cells, Clara cell secretory protein (CCSP) for Clara cells, and acetylated tubulin (AcTub) for ciliated cells. Morphometric analysis was used to measure proliferation and restoration of a pseudostratified epithelium.
Epithelial repair was fastest and most extensive in proximal trachea compared with middle and distal trachea. In unexposed mice, cell proliferation was minimal, all basal cells expressed K5, and K14-expressing basal cells were absent from most sections. Chlorine exposure resulted in the sloughing of Clara and ciliated cells from the tracheal epithelium. Two to four days after chlorine exposure, cell proliferation occurred in K5- and K14-expressing basal cells, and the number of K14 cells was dramatically increased. In the period of peak cell proliferation, few if any ciliated or Clara cells were detected in repairing trachea. Expression of ciliated and Clara cell markers was detected at later times (days 7-10), but cell proliferation was not detected in areas in which these differentiated markers were re-expressed. Fibrotic lesions were observed at days 7-10 primarily in distal trachea.
The data are consistent with a model where surviving basal cells function as progenitor cells to repopulate the tracheal epithelium after chlorine injury. In areas with few remaining basal cells, repair is inefficient, leading to airway fibrosis. These studies establish a model for understanding regenerative processes in the respiratory epithelium useful for testing therapies for airway injury.
Abstract Hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) is an established human lung carcinogen, but the carcinogenesis mechanism is poorly understood. Chromosome instability, a hallmark of lung cancer, is considered a ...major driver of Cr(VI)-induced lung cancer. Unrepaired DNA double-strand breaks are the underlying cause, and homologous recombination repair is the primary mechanism preventing Cr(VI)-induced DNA breaks from causing chromosome instability. Cell culture studies show acute Cr(VI) exposure causes DNA double-strand breaks and increases homologous recombination repair activity. However, the ability of Cr(VI)-induced DNA breaks and repair impact has only been reported in cell culture studies. Therefore, we investigated whether acute Cr(VI) exposure could induce breaks and homologous recombination repair in rat lungs. Male and female Wistar rats were acutely exposed to either zinc chromate particles in a saline solution or saline alone by oropharyngeal aspiration. This exposure route resulted in increased Cr levels in each lobe of the lung. We found Cr(VI) induced DNA double-strand breaks in a concentration-dependent manner, with females being more susceptible than males, and induced homologous recombination repair at similar levels in both sexes. Thus, these data show this driving mechanism discovered in cell culture indeed translates to lung tissue in vivo.
Chronic exposure to crystalline silica (CS) causes silicosis, an irreversible lung inflammatory disease that may eventually lead to lung cancer. In this study, we demonstrate that in K-ras(LA1) mice, ...CS exposure markedly enhances the lung tumour burden and genetic deletion of leukotriene B4 receptor-1 (BLT1(-/-)) attenuates this increase. Pulmonary neutrophilic inflammation induced by CS is significantly reduced in BLT1(-/-)K-ras(LA1) mice. CS exposure induces LTB4 production by mast cells and macrophages independent of inflammasome activation. In an air-pouch model, CS-induced neutrophil recruitment is dependent on LTB4 production by mast cells and BLT1 expression on neutrophils. In an implantable lung tumour model, CS exposure results in rapid tumour growth and decreased survival that is attenuated in the absence of BLT1. These results suggest that the LTB4/BLT1 axis sets the pace of CS-induced sterile inflammation that promotes lung cancer progression. This knowledge may facilitate development of immunotherapeutic strategies to fight silicosis and lung cancer.
Chlorine is a chemical threat agent that can be harmful to humans. Acute inhalation of high levels of chlorine results in the death of airway epithelial cells and can lead to persistent adverse ...effects on respiratory health, including airway remodeling and hyperreactivity. We previously developed a mouse chlorine exposure model in which animals developed inflammation and fibrosis in large airways. In the present study, examination by laser capture microdissection of developing fibroproliferative lesions in FVB/NJ mice exposed to 240 ppm-h chlorine revealed upregulation of genes related to macrophage function. Treatment of chlorine-exposed mice with the corticosteroid drug budesonide daily for 7 days (30–90 μg/mouse i.m.) starting 1 h after exposure prevented the influx of M2 macrophages and the development of airway fibrosis and hyperreactivity. In chlorine-exposed, budesonide-treated mice 7 days after exposure, large airways lacking fibrosis contained extensive denuded areas indicative of a poorly repaired epithelium. Damaged or poorly repaired epithelium has been considered a trigger for fibrogenesis, but the results of this study suggest that inflammation is the ultimate driver of fibrosis in our model. Examination at later times following 7-day budesonide treatment showed continued absence of fibrosis after cessation of treatment and regrowth of a poorly differentiated airway epithelium by 14 days after exposure. Delay in the start of budesonide treatment for up to 2 days still resulted in inhibition of airway fibrosis. Our results show the therapeutic potential of budesonide as a countermeasure for inhibiting persistent effects of chlorine inhalation and shed light on mechanisms underlying the initial development of fibrosis following airway injury.
•Fibrotic lesions in chlorine-exposed mouse lungs had large gene expression changes.•Pro-inflammatory gene expression suggested benefits of anti-inflammatory therapy.•The corticosteroid budesonide inhibited chlorine-induced airway fibrosis in mice.•Budesonide inhibited fibrosis even in the absence of efficient epithelial repair.•Inflammation rather than epithelial damage may drive fibrogenesis in this model.
Inflammation is associated with various pulmonary diseases and contributes to the pathogenesis of acute lung injury. We previously identified a proinflammatory signaling pathway triggered by G ...protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in which stimulation of G(q)-coupled GPCRs results in activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB. Because damage to the lung causes the release of multiple mediators acting through G(q)-coupled GPCRs, this signaling pathway is likely to contribute to inflammatory processes in the injured lung. In an effort to identify novel inhibitors of lung inflammation, the National Institutes of Health Clinical Collection, a library of 446 compounds, was screened for inhibitory activity toward production of IL-8 induced by stimulation of the G(q)-coupled tachykinin 1 receptor with substance P in A549 cells. Twenty-eight compounds that significantly inhibited substance P-induced IL-8 production were identified. The most potent inhibitor was triptolide, a diterpenoid compound from Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F, a vine used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. Triptolide inhibited IL-8 production induced by substance P with an IC(50) of 2.3 x 10(-8) M and inhibited NF-kappaB activation in response to an agonist of the protease-activated receptor 2 with an IC(50) of 1.4 x 10(-8) M. Anti-inflammatory effects of triptolide were assessed in vivo using a chlorine gas lung injury model in mice. Triptolide inhibited neutrophilic inflammation and the production of KC (Cxcl1) in the lungs of chlorine-exposed mice. The results demonstrate that triptolide exhibits anti-inflammatory activity in cultured lung cells and in an in vivo model of acute lung injury.
Chlorine is a reactive gas that is considered a chemical threat agent. Humans who develop acute lung injury from chlorine inhalation typically recover normal lung function; however, a subset can ...experience chronic airway disease. To examine pathological changes following chlorine-induced lung injury, mice were exposed to a single high dose of chlorine, and repair of the lung was analyzed at multiple times after exposure. In FVB/NJ mice, chlorine inhalation caused pronounced fibrosis of larger airways that developed by day 7 after exposure and was associated with airway hyperreactivity. In contrast, A/J mice had little or no airway fibrosis and had normal lung function at day 7. Unexposed FVB/NJ mice had less keratin 5 staining (basal cell marker) than A/J mice in large intrapulmonary airways where epithelial repair was poor and fibrosis developed after chlorine exposure. FVB/NJ mice had large areas devoid of epithelium on day 1 after exposure leading to fibroproliferative lesions on days 4 and 7. A/J mice had airways covered by squamous keratin 5-stained cells on day 1 that transitioned to a highly proliferative reparative epithelium by day 4 followed by the reappearance of ciliated and Clara cells by day 7. The data suggest that lack of basal cells in the large intrapulmonary airways and failure to effect epithelial repair at these sites are factors contributing to the development of airway fibrosis in FVB/NJ mice. The observed differences in susceptibility to chlorine-induced airway disease provide a model in which mechanisms and treatment of airway fibrosis can be investigated.
Ambient particulate matter (PM) exposure is known to have adverse effects on respiratory health, but the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. We tested the hypothesis that macrophages and epithelial ...cells synergize to produce maximal cytokine release in response to PM exposure, thereby promoting inflammatory responses. We developed a co-culture model using MLE-12 (mouse lung epithelial) cells and RAW 264.7 (mouse monocyte/macrophage) cells. MLE-12 cells produced KC (Cxcl1) but not tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF), and KC was upregulated only at high levels of urban particulate matter (UPM; NIST 1648a). RAW 264.7 cells produced TNF but not KC, and TNF production was increased by treatment with UPM. In contrast, KC production was upregulated by co-culture of MLE-12 and RAW 264.7 cells, and it was further increased by treatment with a concentration of UPM that had no effect on MLE-12 cells alone. Multiplex cytokine assay revealed a similar pattern of synergistic production of MIG (Cxcl9) and IP-10 (Cxcl10) in co-cultures in response to UPM. TNF was implicated as mediating the synergistic increase in KC production because TNF upregulated KC production in MLE-12 cells, and UPM-induced KC production in co-cultures could be inhibited by a TNF blocking antibody. Intratracheal instillation of UPM into both wild-type and TNF receptor knockout mice resulted in increased TNF production in lavage fluid and increased TNF mRNA expression in cells recovered from lavage fluid. Additionally, UPM instillation into wild-type mice resulted in increased neutrophils and KC in lavage fluid, and these were inhibited in UPM-exposed TNF receptor knockout mice. These results are consistent with a model in which PM activates TNF production in macrophages which in turn stimulates epithelial cells to produce proinflammatory cytokines such as KC. The findings suggest a potential mechanism by which inhaled PM induces inflammation in the lung.
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