Based on rodent studies, we examined the hypothesis that increased adipose tissue (AT) mass in obesity without an adequate support of vascularization might lead to hypoxia, macrophage infiltration, ...and inflammation.
Oxygen partial pressure (AT pO2) and AT temperature in abdominal AT (9 lean and 12 overweight/obese men and women) was measured by direct insertion of a polarographic Clark electrode. Body composition was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and insulin sensitivity was measured by hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp. Abdominal subcutaneous tissue was used for staining, quantitative RT-PCR, and chemokine secretion assay.
AT pO2 was lower in overweight/obese subjects than lean subjects (47 +/- 10.6 vs. 55 +/- 9.1 mmHg); however, this level of pO2 did not activate the classic hypoxia targets (pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase and vascular endothelial growth factor VEGF). AT pO2 was negatively correlated with percent body fat (R = -0.50, P < 0.05). Compared with lean subjects, overweight/obese subjects had 44% lower capillary density and 58% lower VEGF, suggesting AT rarefaction (capillary drop out). This might be due to lower peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma1 and higher collagen VI mRNA expression, which correlated with AT pO2 (P < 0.05). Of clinical importance, AT pO2 negatively correlated with CD68 mRNA and macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha secretion (R = -0.58, R = -0.79, P < 0.05), suggesting that lower AT pO2 could drive AT inflammation in obesity.
Adipose tissue rarefaction might lie upstream of both low AT pO2 and inflammation in obesity. These results suggest novel approaches to treat the dysfunctional AT found in obesity.
Current strategies to produce homogeneous antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) rely on mutations or inefficient conjugation chemistries. Here we present a strategy to produce site-specific ADCs using a ...highly reactive natural buried lysine embedded in a dual variable domain (DVD) format. This approach is mutation free and drug conjugation proceeds rapidly at neutral pH in a single step without removing any charges. The conjugation chemistry is highly robust, enabling the use of crude DVD for ADC preparation. In addition, this strategy affords the ability to precisely monitor the efficiency of drug conjugation with a catalytic assay. ADCs targeting HER2 were prepared and demonstrated to be highly potent and specific in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the modular DVD platform was used to prepare potent and specific ADCs targeting CD138 and CD79B, two clinically established targets overexpressed in multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, respectively.
Proteasome-ubiquitin receptor hRpn13/Adrm1 binds and activates deubiquitinating enzyme Uch37/UCHL5 and is targeted by bis-benzylidine piperidone RA190, which restricts cancer growth in mice ...xenografts. Here, we solve the structure of hRpn13 with a segment of hRpn2 that serves as its proteasome docking site; a proline-rich C-terminal hRpn2 extension stretches across a narrow canyon of the ubiquitin-binding hRpn13 Pru domain blocking an RA190-binding surface. Biophysical analyses in combination with cell-based assays indicate that hRpn13 binds preferentially to hRpn2 and proteasomes over RA190. hRpn13 also exists outside of proteasomes where it may be RA190 sensitive. RA190 does not affect hRpn13 interaction with Uch37, but rather directly binds and inactivates Uch37. hRpn13 deletion from HCT116 cells abrogates RA190-induced accumulation of substrates at proteasomes. We propose that RA190 targets hRpn13 and Uch37 through parallel mechanisms and at proteasomes, RA190-inactivated Uch37 cannot disassemble hRpn13-bound ubiquitin chains.
Targeting protein - protein interactions (PPIs) has emerged as an important area of discovery for anticancer therapeutic development. In the case of phospho-dependent PPIs, such as the polo-like ...kinase 1 (Plk1) polo-box domain (PBD), a phosphorylated protein residue can provide high-affinity recognition and binding to target protein hot spots. Developing antagonists of the Plk1 PBD can be particularly challenging if one relies solely on interactions within and proximal to the phospho-binding pocket. Fortunately, the affinity of phospho-dependent PPI antagonists can be significantly enhanced by taking advantage of interactions in both the phospho-binding site and hidden "cryptic" pockets that may be revealed on ligand binding. In our current paper, we describe the design and synthesis of macrocyclic peptide mimetics directed against the Plk1 PBD, which are characterized by a new glutamic acid analog that simultaneously serves as a ring-closing junction that provides accesses to a cryptic binding pocket, while at the same time achieving proper orientation of a phosphothreonine (pT) residue for optimal interaction in the signature phospho-binding pocket. Macrocycles prepared with this new amino acid analog introduce additional hydrogen-bonding interactions not found in the open-chain linear parent peptide. It is noteworthy that this new glutamic acid-based amino acid analog represents the first example of extremely high affinity ligands where access to the cryptic pocket from the pT-2 position is made possible with a residue that is not based on histidine. The concepts employed in the design and synthesis of these new macrocyclic peptide mimetics should be useful for further studies directed against the Plk1 PBD and potentially for ligands directed against other PPI targets.
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By a process involving initial screening of a set of 87 aldehydes using an oxime ligation-based strategy, we were able to achieve a several-fold affinity enhancement over one of the ...most potent previously known polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) polo-box domain (PBD) binding inhibitors. This improved binding may result by accessing a newly identified auxiliary region proximal to a key hydrophobic cryptic pocket on the surface of the protein. Our findings could have general applicability to the design of PBD-binding antagonists.
Members of the polo-like kinase (Plk) family of serine/threonine protein kinases play crucial roles in cell cycle regulation and proliferation. Of the five Plks (Plk1-5), Plk1 is recognized as an ...anticancer drug target. Plk1 contains multiple structural components that are important for its proper biological function. These include an N-terminal catalytic domain and a C-terminal non-catalytic polo-box domain (PBD). The PBD binds to phosphothreonine (pT) and phosphoserine-containing sequences. Blocking PBD-dependent interactions offers a potential means of down-regulating Plk1 function that is distinct from targeting its ATP-binding site. Previously, we demonstrated by tethering alkylphenyl chains from the
(π)-position of the His residue in the 5-mer PLHSpT, that we were able to access a hydrophobic "cryptic" binding pocket on the surface of the PBD, and in so doing enhance binding affinities by approximately 1000-fold. More recently, we optimized these PBD-ligand interactions using an oxime ligation-based strategy. Herein, using azide-alkyne cycloaddition reactions, we explore new triazole-containing PBD-binding antagonists. Some of these ligands retain the high PBD-binding affinity of the parent peptide, while showing desirable enhanced selectivity for the PBD of Plk1 relative to the PBDs of Plk2 and Plk3.
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•Peptide macrocyclization is an important step in advancing peptides to peptidomimetics.•Size reduction of Plk1 PBD-binding peptides with retention of affinity is desired.•Histidine ...N(τ)-cyclized macrocyclization has resulted in a tripeptide with high affinity.
Transition toward peptide mimetics of reduced size is an important objective of peptide macrocyclization. We have previously shown that PLH∗SpT (2a) (where H∗ indicates the presence of a –(CH2)8Ph group at the N(π) position and pT indicates phosphothreonine) is an extremely high affinity ligand of the polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) polo-box domain (PBD). Herein we report that C-terminal macrocyclization of 2a employing N(π),N(τ)-bis-alkylated His residues as ring junctions can be achieved in a very direct fashion. The resulting macrocycles are highly potent in biochemical assays and maintain good target selectivity for the Plk1 PBD versus the PBDs of Plk2 and Plk3. Importantly, as exemplified by 5d, our current approach permits deletion of the N-terminal “Pro-Leu” motif to yield tripeptide ligands with decreased molecular weight, which retain high affinity and show improved target selectivity. These findings could fundamentally impact the future development of peptide macrocycles in general and Plk1 PBD-binding peptide mimetics in particular.
Using a probe consisting of a fluorescein-labeled variant of the potent polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) inhibitor BI2536 FITC-PEG-Lys(BI2536) 4, we were able to determine half maximal inhibitory ...concentration (IC
) of ATP-competitive Type 1 inhibitors of Plk1 by means of a fluorescence recovery assay. This methodology represents a cost-effective and simple alternative to traditional kinase assays for initial screening of potential Plk1 inhibitors.
Critical protein–protein interactions are ubiquitous in biology. To provide a new method to detect these interactions, we designed and synthesized fluorinated bromopyronins as molecular probes. These ...electrophilic compounds rapidly react with amines via a SNAr mechanism to form modestly electrophilic aminopyronin fluorophores. To investigate whether proteins modified with aminopyronins might selectively transfer these fluorophores between proximal lysine residues at protein–protein interfaces, immunoglobulin-G (IgG) was conjugated to fluorinated pyronins and added to unlabeled Protein A (SpA) from S. aureus. Analysis by gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry revealed transfer of this fluorophore from IgG to specific lysines of its binding partner SpA but not to bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a nonbinding control. Examination of an X-ray structure of IgG bound to SpA revealed that the fluorophore was selectively transferred between amino groups of lysines that reside within ∼10 Å at the protein–protein interface. To evaluate whether this approach could be used to identify interactions with endogenous cellular proteins, pyronin-modified Rnase A was added to crude extracts of human HeLa cells. Analysis of interacting proteins by gel electrophoresis revealed the endogenous ribonuclease inhibitor as the primary cellular target. Given that proximal lysine residues frequently reside at protein–protein interfaces, this method may facilitate identification of diverse protein–protein interactions present in complex biological matrices.
T-cell engaging bispecific antibodies (biAbs) can mediate potent and specific tumor cell eradication in liquid cancers. Substantial effort has been invested in expanding this concept to solid ...cancers. To explore their utility in the treatment of ovarian cancer, we built a set of asymmetric biAbs in IgG1-like format that bind CD3 on T cells with a conventional scFv arm and folate receptor 1 (FOLR1) on ovarian cancer cells with a conventional or a chemically programmed Fab arm. For avidity engineering, we also built an asymmetric biAb format with a tandem Fab arm. We show that both conventional and chemically programmed CD3 × FOLR1 biAbs exert specific
and
cytotoxicity toward FOLR1-expressing ovarian cancer cells by recruiting and activating T cells. While the conventional T-cell engaging biAb was curative in an aggressive mouse model of human ovarian cancer, the potency of the chemically programmed biAb was significantly boosted by avidity engineering. Both conventional and chemically programmed CD3 × FOLR1 biAbs warrant further investigation for ovarian cancer immunotherapy.
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