In recent years, the production of pellets derived from forestry biomass to replace coal for electricity generation has been increasing, with over 10 million tonnes traded internationally—primarily ...between United States and Europe but with an increasing trend to Asia. Critical to this trade is the classification of woody biomass as ‘renewable energy’ and thus eligible for public subsidies. However, much scientific study on the net effect of this trend suggests that it is having the opposite effect to that expected of renewable energy, by increasing atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide for substantial periods of time. This review, based on recent work by Europe's Academies of Science, finds that current policies are failing to recognize that removing forest carbon stocks for bioenergy leads to an initial increase in emissions. Moreover, the periods during which atmospheric CO2 levels are raised before forest regrowth can reabsorb the excess emissions are incompatible with the urgency of reducing emissions to comply with the objectives enshrined in the Paris Agreement. We consider how current policy might be reformed to reduce negative impacts on climate and argue for a more realistic science‐based assessment of the potential of forest bioenergy in substituting for fossil fuels. The length of time atmospheric concentrations of CO2 increase is highly dependent on the feedstocks and we argue for regulations to explicitly require these to be sources with short payback periods. Furthermore, we describe the current United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change accounting rules which allow imported biomass to be treated as zero emissions at the point of combustion and urge their revision to remove the risk of these providing incentives to import biomass with negative climate impacts. Reforms such as these would allow the industry to evolve to methods and scales which are more compatible with the basic purpose for which it was designed.
Trade in wood pellets from forestry biomass to replace coal for electricity generation is increasing dramatically. Critical to this trade is the classification of woody biomass as ‘renewable energy’ and thus eligible for public subsidies. However, scientific studies show that it is having the opposite effect and is increasing atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide for substantial periods of time. We argue that EU regulations and the current United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change accounting, which both allow imported biomass to be treated as zero emissions at the point of combustion, should be revised to remove incentives to import biomass with negative climate impacts.
Bioenergy from crops is expected to make a considerable contribution to climate change mitigation. However, bioenergy is not necessarily carbon neutral because emissions of CO2, N2O and CH4 during ...crop production may reduce or completely counterbalance CO2 savings of the substituted fossil fuels. These greenhouse gases (GHGs) need to be included into the carbon footprint calculation of different bioenergy crops under a range of soil conditions and management practices. This review compiles existing knowledge on agronomic and environmental constraints and GHG balances of the major European bioenergy crops, although it focuses on dedicated perennial crops such as Miscanthus and short rotation coppice species. Such second‐generation crops account for only 3% of the current European bioenergy production, but field data suggest they emit 40% to >99% less N2O than conventional annual crops. This is a result of lower fertilizer requirements as well as a higher N‐use efficiency, due to effective N‐recycling. Perennial energy crops have the potential to sequester additional carbon in soil biomass if established on former cropland (0.44 Mg soil C ha−1 yr−1 for poplar and willow and 0.66 Mg soil C ha−1 yr−1 for Miscanthus). However, there was no positive or even negative effects on the C balance if energy crops are established on former grassland. Increased bioenergy production may also result in direct and indirect land‐use changes with potential high C losses when native vegetation is converted to annual crops. Although dedicated perennial energy crops have a high potential to improve the GHG balance of bioenergy production, several agronomic and economic constraints still have to be overcome.
Abstract Semaphorin-3A (SEMA3A) functions as a chemorepulsive signal during development and can affect T cells by altering their filamentous actin (F-actin) cytoskeleton. The exact extent of these ...effects on tumour-specific T cells are not completely understood. Here we demonstrate that Neuropilin-1 (NRP1) and Plexin-A1 and Plexin-A4 are upregulated on stimulated CD8 + T cells, allowing tumour-derived SEMA3A to inhibit T cell migration and assembly of the immunological synapse. Deletion of NRP1 in both CD4 + and CD8 + T cells enhance CD8 + T-cell infiltration into tumours and restricted tumour growth in animal models. Conversely, over-expression of SEMA3A inhibit CD8 + T-cell infiltration. We further show that SEMA3A affects CD8 + T cell F-actin, leading to inhibition of immune synapse formation and motility. Examining a clear cell renal cell carcinoma patient cohort, we find that SEMA3A expression is associated with reduced survival, and that T-cells appear trapped in SEMA3A rich regions. Our study establishes SEMA3A as an inhibitor of effector CD8 + T cell tumour infiltration, suggesting that blocking NRP1 could improve T cell function in tumours.
In this study, we compared measured and simulated Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE) values from three wide spread ecosystems in the southeast of Ireland (forest, arable and grassland), and investigated ...the suitability of the DNDC (the DeNitrification–DeComposition) model to estimate present and future NEE. Although, the field-DNDC version overestimated NEE at temperatures >5°C, forest-DNDC under-estimated NEE at temperatures >5°C. The results suggest that the field/forest DNDC models can successfully estimate changes in seasonal and annual NEE from these ecosystems. Differences in NEE were found to be primarily land cover specific. The annual NEE was similar for the grassland and arable sites, but due to the contribution of exported carbon, the soil carbon increased at the grassland site and decreased at the arable site. The NEE of the forest site was an order of magnitude larger than that of the grassland or arable ecosystems, with large amounts of carbon stored in woody biomass and the soil. The average annual NEE, GPP and Reco values over the measurement period were −904, 2379 and 1475gCm−2 (forest plantations), −189, 906 and 715gCm−2 (arable systems) and −212, 1653 and 1444gCm−2 (grasslands), respectively. The average RMSE values were 3.8gCm−2 (forest plantations), 0.12gCm−2 (arable systems) and 0.21gCm−2 (grasslands). When these models were run with climate change scenarios to 2060, predictions show that all three ecosystems will continue to operate as carbon sinks. Further, climate change may decrease the carbon sink strength in the forest plantations by up to 50%. This study supports the use of the DNDC model as a valid tool to predict the consequences of climate change on NEE from different ecosystems.
► Differences in NEE were found to be primarily land cover specific. ► Annual NEE was similar for the grass and arable sites but SOC increased at the grass and decreased at the arable sites. ► Climate change may decrease the carbon sink strength in the forest plantations by up to 50%. ► The DNDC model could become a valid tool to predict the consequences of climate change on NEE from different ecosystems.
Semaphorin-3A (SEMA3A) functions as a chemorepulsive signal during development and can affect T cells by altering their filamentous actin (F-actin) cytoskeleton. The exact extent of these effects on ...tumour-specific T cells are not completely understood. Here we demonstrate that Neuropilin-1 (NRP1) and Plexin-A1 and Plexin-A4 are upregulated on stimulated CD8
T cells, allowing tumour-derived SEMA3A to inhibit T cell migration and assembly of the immunological synapse. Deletion of NRP1 in both CD4
and CD8
T cells enhance CD8
T-cell infiltration into tumours and restricted tumour growth in animal models. Conversely, over-expression of SEMA3A inhibit CD8
T-cell infiltration. We further show that SEMA3A affects CD8
T cell F-actin, leading to inhibition of immune synapse formation and motility. Examining a clear cell renal cell carcinoma patient cohort, we find that SEMA3A expression is associated with reduced survival, and that T-cells appear trapped in SEMA3A rich regions. Our study establishes SEMA3A as an inhibitor of effector CD8
T cell tumour infiltration, suggesting that blocking NRP1 could improve T cell function in tumours.
While developing new variations of the Prins cyclisation reaction, the effect of the choice of Lewis acid on the outcome of the reaction and the product(s) has been investigated, yielding hitherto ...unseen dihydropyran products in the Prins cyclisation reaction of homoallylic alcohols, and two new modifications of the reaction: the triflate-trapped Prins adduct and the Mukaiyama–Aldol–silyl-Prins reaction. Two of these methods are employed in two complementary total syntheses of the important perfumery compound, (±)-Civet.
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Objective To provide preliminary clinical performance evaluation of a novel prostate cancer (CaP) assay, prostate-specific antigen/solvent interaction analysis (PSA/SIA) that focused on changes to ...the structure of PSA. Methods Two-hundred twenty-two men undergoing prostate biopsy for accepted clinical criteria at 3 sites (University Hospitals Case Medical Center in Cleveland, Cleveland Clinic, and Veterans Administration Boston Healthcare System) were enrolled in institutional review board–approved study. Before transrectal ultrasound–guided biopsy, patients received digital rectal examination with systematic prostate massage followed by collection of urine. The PSA/SIA assay determined the relative partitioning of heterogeneous PSA isoform populations in urine between 2 aqueous phases. A structural index, K, whose numerical value is defined as the ratio of the concentration of all PSA isoforms, was determined by total PSA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and used to set a diagnostic threshold for CaP. Performance was assessed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis with biopsy as the gold standard. Results Biopsies were pathologically classified as case (malignant, n = 100) or control (benign, n = 122). ROC performance demonstrated area under the curve = 0.90 for PSA/SIA and 0.58 for serum total PSA. At a cutoff value of k = 1.73, PSA/SIA displayed sensitivity = 100%, specificity = 80.3%, positive predictive value = 80.6%, and negative predictive value = 100%. No attempt was made in this preliminary study to further control patient population or selection criteria for biopsy, nor did we analytically investigate the type of structural differences in PSA that led to changes in k value. Conclusion PSA/SIA provides ratiometric information independently of PSA concentration. In this preliminary study, analysis of the overall structurally heterogeneous PSA isoform population using the SIA assay showed promising results to be further evaluated in future studies.
Although inequalities in health and socioeconomic status have an important influence on childhood educational performance, the interactions between these multiple factors relating to variation in ...educational outcomes at micro-level is unknown, and how to evaluate the many possible interactions of these factors is not well established. This paper aims to examine multi-dimensional deprivation factors and their impact on childhood educational outcomes at micro-level, focusing on geographic areas having widely different disparity patterns, in which each area is characterised by six deprivation domains (Income, Health, Geographical Access to Services, Housing, Physical Environment, and Community Safety). Traditional health statistical studies tend to use one global model to describe the whole population for macro-analysis. In this paper, we combine linked educational and deprivation data across small areas (median population of 1500), then use a local modelling technique, the Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy system, to predict area educational outcomes at ages 7 and 11. We define two new metrics, "Micro-impact of Domain" and "Contribution of Domain", to quantify the variations of local impacts of multidimensional factors on educational outcomes across small areas. The two metrics highlight differing priorities. Our study reveals complex multi-way interactions between the deprivation domains, which could not be provided by traditional health statistical methods based on single global model. We demonstrate that although Income has an expected central role, all domains contribute, and in some areas Health, Environment, Access to Services, Housing and Community Safety each could be the dominant factor. Thus the relative importance of health and socioeconomic factors varies considerably for different areas, depending on the levels of each of the other factors, and therefore each component of deprivation must be considered as part of a wider system. Childhood educational achievement could benefit from policies and intervention strategies that are tailored to the local geographic areas' profiles.
A field trial was carried out on a 15 year old Miscanthus stand, subject to nitrogen fertilizer treatments of 0, 63 and 125 kg‐N ha−1, measuring N2O emissions, as well as annual crop yield over a ...full year. N2O emission intensity (N2O emissions calculated as a function of above‐ground biomass) was significantly affected by fertilizer application, with values of 52.2 and 59.4 g N2O‐N t−1 observed at 63 and 125 kg‐N ha−1, respectively, compared to 31.3 g N2O‐N t−1 in the zero fertilizer control. A life cycle analyses approach was applied to calculate the increase in yield required to offset N2O emissions from Miscanthus through fossil fuel substitution in the fuel chain. For the conditions observed during the field trial yield increases of 0.33 and 0.39 t ha−1 were found to be required to offset N2O emissions from the 63 kg‐N ha−1 treatment, when replacing peat and coal, respectively, while increases of 0.71 and 0.83 t ha−1 were required for the 125 kg‐N ha−1 treatment, for each fuel. These values are considerably less than the mean above‐ground biomass yield increases observed here of 1.57 and 2.79 t ha−1 at fertilization rates 63 and 125 kg‐N ha−1 respectively. Extending this analysis to include a range of fertilizer application rates and N2O emission factors found increases in yield necessary to offset soil N2O emissions ranging from 0.26 to 2.54 t ha−1. These relatively low yield increase requirements indicate that where nitrogen fertilizer application improves yield, the benefits of such a response will not be offset by soil N2O emissions.
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