Morals matter in economic games Brodbeck, Felix C; Kugler, Katharina G; Reif, Julia A M ...
PloS one,
12/2013, Letnik:
8, Številka:
12
Journal Article
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Contrary to predictions from Expected Utility Theory and Game Theory, when making economic decisions in interpersonal situations, people take the interest of others into account and express various ...forms of solidarity, even in one-shot interactions with anonymous strangers. Research in other-regarding behavior is dominated by behavioral economical and evolutionary biological approaches. Psychological theory building, which addresses mental processes underlying other-regarding behavior, is rare. Based on Relational Models Theory (RMT, 1) and Relationship Regulation Theory (RRT, 2) it is proposed that moral motives influence individuals' decision behavior in interpersonal situations via conscious and unconscious (automatic) processes. To test our propositions we developed the 'Dyadic Solidarity Game' and its solitary equivalent, the 'Self-Insurance Game'. Four experiments, in which the moral motives "Unity" and "Proportionality" were manipulated, support the propositions made. First, it was shown that consciously activated moral motives (via framing of the overall goal of the experiment) and unconsciously activated moral motives (via subliminal priming) influence other-regarding behavior. Second, this influence was only found in interpersonal, not in solitary situations. Third, by combining the analyses of the two experimental games the extent to which participants apply the Golden Rule ("treat others how you wish to be treated") could be established. Individuals with a "Unity" motive treated others like themselves, whereas individuals with a "Proportionality" motive gave others less then they gave themselves. The four experiments not only support the assumption that morals matter in economic games, they also deliver new insights in how morals matter in economic decision making.
We studied the behavioral and emotional dynamics displayed by two people trying to resolve a conflict. 59 groups of two people were asked to talk for 20 minutes to try to reach a consensus about a ...topic on which they disagreed. The topics were abortion, affirmative action, death penalty, and euthanasia. Behavior data were determined from audio recordings where each second of the conversation was assessed as proself, neutral, or prosocial. We determined the probability density function of the durations of time spent in each behavioral state. These durations were well fit by a stretched exponential distribution, Formula: see text with an exponent, Formula: see text, of approximately 0.3. This indicates that the switching between behavioral states is not a random Markov process, but one where the probability to switch behavioral states decreases with the time already spent in that behavioral state. The degree of this "memory" was stronger in those groups who did not reach a consensus and where the conflict grew more destructive than in those that did. Emotion data were measured by having each person listen to the audio recording and moving a computer mouse to recall their negative or positive emotional valence at each moment in the conversation. We used the Hurst rescaled range analysis and power spectrum to determine the correlations in the fluctuations of the emotional valence. The emotional valence was well described by a random walk whose increments were uncorrelated. Thus, the behavior data demonstrated a "memory" of the duration already spent in a behavioral state while the emotion data fluctuated as a random walk whose steps did not have a "memory" of previous steps. This work demonstrates that statistical analysis, more commonly used to analyze physical phenomena, can also shed interesting light on the dynamics of processes in social psychology and conflict management.
Plant growth and development are highly regulated processes that are coordinated by hormones including the brassinosteroids (BRs), a group of steroids with structural similarity to steroid hormones ...of mammals. Although it is well understood how BRs are produced and how their signals are transduced, BR targets, which directly confer the hormone’s growth-promoting effects, have remained largely elusive. Here, we show that BRs regulate the biosynthesis of gibberellins (GAs), another class of growth-promoting hormones, in Arabidopsis thaliana. We reveal that Arabidopsis mutants deficient in BR signaling are severely impaired in the production of bioactive GA, which is correlated with defective GA biosynthetic gene expression. Expression of the key GA biosynthesis gene GA20ox1 in the BR signaling mutant bri1-301 rescues many of its developmental defects. We provide evidence that supports a model in which the BR-regulated transcription factor BES1 binds to a regulatory element in promoters of GA biosynthesis genes in a BR-induced manner to control their expression. In summary, our study underscores a role of BRs as master regulators of GA biosynthesis and shows that this function is of major relevance for the growth and development of vascular plants.
Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a disease caused predominantly by the fungal pathogen Fusarium graminearum that affects wheat and other small‐grain cereals and can lead to severe yield loss and ...reduction in grain quality. Trichothecene mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON), accumulate during infection and increase pathogen virulence and decrease grain quality. The Fhb1 locus on wheat chromosome 3BS confers Type II resistance to FHB and resistance to the spread of infection on the spike and has been associated with resistance to DON accumulation. To gain a better genetic understanding of the functional role of Fhb1 and resistance or susceptibility to FHB, we examined DON and ergosterol accumulation, FHB resistance, and the whole‐genome transcriptomic response using RNA‐seq in a near‐isogenic line (NIL) pair carrying the resistant and susceptible alleles for Fhb1 during F. graminearum infection and DON treatment. Our results provide a gene expression atlas for the resistant and susceptible wheat–F. graminearum interaction. The DON concentration and transcriptomic results show that the rachis is a key location for conferring Type II resistance. In addition, the wheat transcriptome analysis revealed a set of Fhb1‐responsive genes that may play a role in resistance and a set of DON‐responsive genes that may play a role in trichothecene resistance. Transcriptomic results from the pathogen show that the F. graminearum genome responds differently to the host level of resistance. The results of this study extend our understanding of host and pathogen responses in the wheat–F. graminearum interaction.
Gender differences in the initiation of negotiation have been suggested to reinforce unequal distributions of resources between men and women. Because previous research had yielded heterogeneous ...results, the authors conducted a meta-analysis investigating gender differences in initiating negotiation. On the basis of social role theory, they hypothesized that women are less likely to initiate negotiations than men, but also that the effect varies depending on characteristics of the immediate negotiation situation and the wider societal context. The meta-analysis comprised 55 effect sizes with 17,504 individuals, including both students and employees. A random-effects model confirmed that women were indeed less likely to initiate negotiations than men (g = 0.20). Additional moderator analyses, tested with mixed-effects models and metaregressions, revealed that gender differences were smaller when situational ambiguity regarding the appropriateness of negotiating was low rather than high as well as when situational cues were more consistent with the female gender role than with the male gender role. Gender differences decreased by year of publication (from 1977 to 2016) but were unrelated to the degree of gender inequality in the countries in which the studies were conducted. The authors conclude that gender differences in the initiation of negotiation exist, but they are small and context-bound. Finally, they discuss mechanisms that alter the gender difference with a particular focus on potential starting points for practical interventions.
Public Significance Statement
The present meta-analysis shows that overall women are less likely to initiate negotiations than men. While certain situational characteristics attenuate the gender difference (e.g., individuals are explicitly prompted to negotiate), others reinforce the gender difference (e.g., individuals are in doubt whether negotiating is appropriate). Addressing gender differences in the initiation of negotiation might ultimately help to minimize unequal distributions of resources between men and women (e.g., gender wage gap).
Plant hormones coordinate responses to environmental cues with developmental programs
, and are fundamental for stress resilience and agronomic yield
. The core signalling pathways underlying the ...effects of phytohormones have been elucidated by genetic screens and hypothesis-driven approaches, and extended by interactome studies of select pathways
. However, fundamental questions remain about how information from different pathways is integrated. Genetically, most phenotypes seem to be regulated by several hormones, but transcriptional profiling suggests that hormones trigger largely exclusive transcriptional programs
. We hypothesized that protein-protein interactions have an important role in phytohormone signal integration. Here, we experimentally generated a systems-level map of the Arabidopsis phytohormone signalling network, consisting of more than 2,000 binary protein-protein interactions. In the highly interconnected network, we identify pathway communities and hundreds of previously unknown pathway contacts that represent potential points of crosstalk. Functional validation of candidates in seven hormone pathways reveals new functions for 74% of tested proteins in 84% of candidate interactions, and indicates that a large majority of signalling proteins function pleiotropically in several pathways. Moreover, we identify several hundred largely small-molecule-dependent interactions of hormone receptors. Comparison with previous reports suggests that noncanonical and nontranscription-mediated receptor signalling is more common than hitherto appreciated.
•CAE neural network was proposed for modelling the aluminium hot extrusion.•Simultaneous analyses of many influential parameters revealed clear relationships.•Areas of influential parameters with a ...positive influence on the mechanical properties were indicated.•Optimized test alloys revealed the improvement of mechanical properties.
The aluminium alloy 6082 (AA6082) is used as a material for highly loaded construction parts, which means any improvement in its mechanical properties would be an advantage. The majority of approaches employed so far for increasing the mechanical properties only considered a small number of influential parameters and assumed that they were predominately independent of each other. In contrast, in this investigation a simultaneous increase in the yield stress and ductility (elongation) was achieved by considering a larger number of influencing parameters. For this purpose, a database of mechanical properties, process parameters and chemical compositions for the hot extruded profiles was collected. Individual and spatial analyses using a CAE neural network were performed to determine the influences of the process parameters and the alloying elements, e.g. Mg, Si, Mn, Fe, Cr and Cu, on the mechanical properties. The results of the analyses provided a new view of their influences, and the possibility to increase the mechanical properties if the process parameters in the relation with the chemical elements are closer to the optimum values. The optimum values of the process parameters and the chemical composition were assessed. In practice, the obtained values for the yield stress and the elongation confirmed the optimized values for the influential parameters as being correct, since a simultaneous increase of both properties was achieved.
Increasing frequencies of 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON)-producing strains of Fusarium graminearum (3-ADON chemotype) have been reported in North America and Asia. 3-ADON is nearly nontoxic at the ...level of the ribosomal target and has to be deacetylated to cause inhibition of protein biosynthesis. Plant cells can efficiently remove the acetyl groups of 3-ADON, but the underlying genes are yet unknown. We therefore performed a study of the family of candidate carboxylesterases (CXE) genes of the monocot model plant Brachypodium distachyon. We report the identification and characterization of the first plant enzymes responsible for deacetylation of trichothecene toxins. The product of the BdCXE29 gene efficiently deacetylates T-2 toxin to HT-2 toxin, NX-2 to NX-3, both 3-ADON and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON) into deoxynivalenol and, to a lesser degree, also fusarenon X into nivalenol. The BdCXE52 esterase showed lower activity than BdCXE29 when expressed in yeast and accepts 3-ADON, NX-2, 15-ADON and, to a limited extent, fusarenon X as substrates. Expression of these Brachypodium genes in yeast increases the toxicity of 3-ADON, suggesting that highly similar genes existing in crop plants may act as susceptibility factors in Fusarium head blight disease.
Histological verification of pulmonary lesions is important to ensure correct treatment. Computed tomographic (CT) transthoracic core biopsy is a well-established procedure for this. Comparison of ...available studies is difficult though, as technical and patient characteristics vary. Using a standardized biopsy technique, we evaluated our results for CT-guided coaxial core biopsy in a semi-automatic technique.
Within 2 years, 664 consecutive transpulmonary biopsies were analyzed retrospectively. All interventions were performed using a 17/18G semi-automatic core biopsy system (4 to 8 specimens). The incidence of complications and technical and patient-dependent risk factors were evaluated.
Comparing the histology with the final diagnosis, the sensitivity was 96.3%, and the specificity was 100%. 24 procedures were not diagnostic. In all others immunohistological staining was possible. The main complication was pneumothorax (PT, 21.7%), with chest tube insertion in 6% of the procedures (n = 40). Bleeding without therapeutic consequences was seen in 43 patients. There was no patient mortality. The rate of PT with chest tube insertion was 9.6% in emphysema patients and 2.8% without emphysema (p = 0.001). Smokers with emphysema had a 5 times higher risk of developing PT (p = 0.001). Correlation of tumor size or biopsy angle and the risk of PT was not significant. The risk of developing a PT was associated with an increasing intrapulmonary depth of the lesion (p = 0.001).
CT-guided, semiautomatic coaxial core biopsy of the lung is a safe diagnostic procedure. The rate of major complications is low, and the sensitivity and specificity of the procedure are high. Smokers with emphysema are at a significantly higher risk of developing pneumothorax and should be monitored accordingly.
Using an 18G core biopsy system with 6 specimens will allow immunohistological staining with high sensitivity and specificity. Smokers with emphysema are at a significantly higher risk of developing a pneumothorax.
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