The Black Kite (Milvus migrans) is one of the most widespread raptors in the world. The Palaearctic is populated by two migrating subspecies, Milvus migrans migrans and Milvus migrans lineatus, in ...the western and eastern part of this realm, respectively. There is a large intergradation zone of M. m. migrans/M. m. lineatus in-between. Although the migration routes of M. m. migrans from Europe to Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East are well known, detailed information about migration routes of Black Kites from intergradation zone are missing. Using satellite telemetry we are able to fill this gap in our knowledge of these birds. We tagged with GPS/SMS/GPRS telemetry loggers 13 and 6 Black Kite pulli in lowland around Biysk (Altai Krai, Russia) and in mountains around Kosh-Agach (Altai Republic, Russia), respectively. After fledging, Black Kites from both subpopulations stayed in a small, non-overlapping areas and then migrated to southern Asia through narrow corridors. Black Kites originating from Biysk migrated through the Western Circum-Himalayan Corridor. Black Kites originating from Kosh-Agach used the Trans-Himalayan Corridor crossing the Himalayas in altitudes of up to 6256 m asl. The average total distance travelled of Black Kites from both subpopulations was 9166 km without any significant differences between these subpopulations. Timing of both spring and autumn migration did not vary along different age groups. Black Kites from both subpopulations wintered in low elevations of Pakistan and India. Birds wintered on average for 190 days, and the mean area of individual home ranges in winter was 4704 km
. During the breeding period, birds dwelled in south-western Siberia, where they spent on average 125 days with an average home range size 3537 km
. We found that ontogenetic shifts in migratory behaviour of Black Kites from Eastern Russia differ from those in population/subspecies in Europe. Black Kites crossing the Himalayas fly and, moreover, stay for hours resting at night in the environment of mountains at altitudes over 5000 m.
The black kite Milvus migrans, one of the most common raptor species, shows great flexibility as regards food resources and breeding sites. While black kite subspecies are found all over Eurasia, ...Africa and Australia, it has been poorly studied outside of Europe, with virtually nothing known about the phylogeny of populations in Asia, India, Africa or Australia. We analysed 85 published black kite nucleotide sequences and ca 660 new sequences from the ranges of the main black kite subspecies using a non‐invasive method of DNA extraction from moulted feathers. In doing so, we evaluated genetic diversity and population affinities and reconstructed their demographic histories. Populations from Europe, northern Asia and India all had separate haplogroups of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. The European and North Asian subspecies were isolated in the Pleistocene and spread across the northern Palearctic following climate amelioration, forming a broad intergradation zone from western Siberia and Kazakhstan to eastern Europe. Representatives of the European, North Asian and Indian haplogroups were found in Pakistan, where they probably breed. The Australasian population separated from the Indian population relatively recently and carries one of the two Indian major haplotypes. We found support for the assumption that the African yellow‐billed kite differs from the black kite at the species level. Further, the yellow‐billed kite contains at least two genetically distant mitochondrial lineages with ranges that do not correspond with its traditional subspecies ranges. Based on these data, we were able to outline the general pattern of black kite phylogeography over its entire range, making it possible to evaluate the evolutionary history of the species as a whole.
Blackbirds (Turdus merula) and song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) were found to carry 95% of all spirochete-infected tick larvae among 40 bird species captured in Central Europe. More than 90% of the ...infections were typed as Borrelia garinii and Borrelia valaisiana. We conclude that thrushes are key players in the maintenance of these spirochete species in this region of Central Europe.
Admission records from wildlife rescue centres can help identify causes of morbidity for species of conservation concern, and to assess the effectiveness of rehabilitation. This study documents the ...causes of admission and outcomes of treatment in 68 white-tailed eagles admitted to rescue centres in the Czech Republic. We determine the factors that contribute to the outcome of rehabilitation. Most admitted birds were juveniles (1st calendar year CY; n = 25), followed by immatures (2nd–4th CY; n = 23) and adults (≥5 CY; n = 17). We categorised admission causes into (1) trauma-related cases (most often unknown trauma, followed by collision and intraspecific fights), (2) non-trauma cases (weakness, toxicosis and becoming stuck in mud or entangled in rope) and (3) orphaned young birds. Trauma-related admissions were most numerous totalling 59%, non-trauma admissions accounted for 35% with the remaining 6% comprising orphaned young birds. At least a third of eagle admissions were caused by anthropogenic factors. In total, 40% of admitted eagles were released back to the wild, 35% died or were euthanized and 25% remained permanently in captivity. Eagles admitted due to non-trauma-related causes had a significantly higher probability of being released into the wild than those admitted due to trauma. Immature eagles were less likely to be released than juvenile individuals. Admissions data are valuable for conservation research, allowing for trends in threats towards species of conservation concern to be quantified, over time, throughout human-dominated landscapes.
A total of 1,621 wild birds representing 34 species were examined for chewing lice in reed beds in southwestern Slovakia during the pre-breeding migration 2008-2009 and 2016-2019. A total of 377 ...(23.3%) birds representing 15 species were parasitized by 26 species of chewing lice of 12 genera. Dominant genera were Penenirmus (with dominance 32.6%) and Menacanthus (29.4%), followed by Brueelia (12.6%), Acronirmus (10.8%), Philopterus (7.7%), and Myrsidea (4.2%). We evaluated 33 host-louse associations including both 1) host-generalist, parasitizing more than one host species and host-specific lice, occurring only on a single host species, and 2) lice species with large range geographic distribution, reported across the range of the distribution of their hosts and lice species with only occasional records from a limited area within the range of their hosts. The Bearded Reedling, Panurus biarmicus (Linnaeus, 1758), was parasitized by two species of chewing lice, Menacanthus brelihi Balát, 1981 and Penenirmus visendus (Złotorzycka, 1964), with conspicuously different prevalences (5.6% vs. 58.2%, respectively; n = 251). New material enabled us to redescribe both species of lice: the first one is resurrected from previous synonymy as a valid species. A fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene was sequenced from these two species in order to assess their relative phylogenetic position within their genera. Our study demonstrates the importance of an adequate identification of parasites, especially on rarely examined and endangered hosts.
Predator behaviour and population numbers can be determined by many factors such as prey availability, individual and habitat characteristics, and intraspecific or interspecific factors. Using ...satellite telemetry, we measured home range size in 3 individuals of Red Kites (
Milvus milvus
) in three consecutive winters to document the pattern of spatial responses to increasing availability of its dominant prey, the Common Vole (
Microtus arvalis
), in the Břeclav District, Czech Republic. Starting with winter 2017/2018, we found that the home range sizes decreased in winter 2018/2019 when the index of vole population density increased from 678 burrow entrances in autumn 2017 to 1414 burrow entrances per hectare in autumn 2018. Home range sizes did not change in winter 2019/2020 in spite of the further increase in vole population density up to 6673 entrances per hectare in autumn 2019. Based on censuses at 5 communal roosts in January 2018, 2019, and 2020, we documented the pattern of numerical responses to increasing availability of voles. Numbers of wintering Red Kites did not respond to growing vole densities until they reached the highest level in autumn 2019, suggesting that the response of wintering numbers was delayed by 1 year compared to that in home range. Our study thus provides empirical support for the spatial and numerical responses of Red Kites to prey availability and suggest that these responses may differ in sensitivity to increases in vole density, being triggered at different periods of the vole population cycle.
Wild animals foraging in the human-influenced environment are colonized by bacteria with clinically important antibiotic resistance. The occurrence of such bacteria in wildlife is influenced by ...various biological, ecological, and geographical factors which have not yet been fully understood. More research focusing on the human-animal-environmental interface and using novel approaches is required to understand the role of wild animals in the transmission of antibiotic resistance and to assess potential risks for the public health.
In a study of the extent and timing of Red Kite
Milvus milvus
dispersal movements from Central Europe (Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia) using GPS telemetry, we found support for the ...hypothesis that Red Kite dispersal, including migration behaviour, is dependent on both age and sex. Examination of the tendency to stay in, or return to, a particular area in Red Kites indicated that, while part of the population remained in the natal area, most migrated to overwintering sites across a broad belt of southern European sites stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to the Balkans. Red Kites first bred at 2 years old, i.e. in their 3rd calendar year. Migration routes were significantly longer in females than males, while natal philopatry was significantly higher in males than females. The lengths of single-year migration routes decreased significantly over consecutive years, and breeding philopatry increased significantly in cases where previous breeding was successful.
Europe is commonly occupied by Black Kites of the nominal subspecies
Milvus migrans migrans.
In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of sightings of Black Kites with morphological ...features of
Milvus migrans lineatus
suggesting the spreading of
M. m. lineatus
and a subsequent hybridization zone between
M. m. migrans
and
M. m. lineatus
in a westerly direction from Siberia across continental Europe. Furthermore, it appears that the emergence of Black Kites with
lineatus
features in Europe coincides with new observations of wintering Black Kites in some areas of southern Europe.
The European population of Black Kites of the nominate subspecies
Milvus migrans migrans
(Boddaert, 1783) is estimated at 81,200–109,000 pairs. The birds winter in Africa but their natal dispersal ...remains largely unstudied. Here, we analyze the behavior of 25 GPS-tracked Black Kites tagged from 2014 until 2018 using GPS/GSM telemetry devices from 16 nests in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany and Slovakia. We calculated juvenile Black Kite post-fledging areas (PFA) using Kernel density estimations 95% (KDE95) and minimum convex polygons 95% (MCP95). Our results revealed that the average occupied PFA for juvenile birds was 2.8 km
2
(range 0.006–20.1 km
2
) as KDE95 and 0.3 km
2
(range 0.07–1.35 km
2
) as MCP95. Birds left PFA from 29 July to 30 August (median 12 August). Two main migration routes were used by tagged birds, namely a southwestern European route crossing the Strait of Gibraltar and a southeastern European route to Turkey and the Middle East. Migration routes which directly crossed the Mediterranean Sea to Africa from Italy and Greece were rarely used. Winter quarters were located in sub-Saharan Africa throughout the belt from Senegal and Gambia to Ethiopia. Four Black Kites remained to stay in tropical Africa during their first summer, seven birds moved north but to substantially lower altitudes (in Morocco, Spain and Turkey) then those in their natal areas. During the second year, Black Kites wintered again in the tropical part of sub-Saharan Africa, summer quarters were located north from the winter quarters, three birds stayed throughout the summer in Africa, three in south to central Europe, one in Turkey and one in northwestern Russia. One 3-year-old bird (fourth calendar year) attempted to nest but it was unsuccessful and occurred 15.6 km from the natal nest. Temporary settlement areas (TSA) were commonly used by Black Kites during migratory routes, winter and summer quarters. The average home range size of TSA was 233.8 km
2
(range 0.99–852 km
2
) as KDE95 and 140.2 km
2
(range 0.1–1054 km
2
) as MCP95. As usual, siblings used the same migratory routes and also shared the same winter and summer quarters. Our findings suggest that the genetic background of the migration behavior of Black Kites is strong.
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