We investigate the evolution of galaxy masses and star formation rates in the Evolution and Assembly of Galaxies and their Environment (eagle) simulations. These comprise a suite of hydrodynamical ...simulations in a Λ cold dark matter cosmogony with subgrid models for radiative cooling, star formation, stellar mass-loss and feedback from stars and accreting black holes. The subgrid feedback was calibrated to reproduce the observed present-day galaxy stellar mass function and galaxy sizes. Here, we demonstrate that the simulations reproduce the observed growth of the stellar mass density to within 20 per cent. The simulations also track the observed evolution of the galaxy stellar mass function out to redshift z = 7, with differences comparable to the plausible uncertainties in the interpretation of the data. Just as with observed galaxies, the specific star formation rates of simulated galaxies are bimodal, with distinct star forming and passive sequences. The specific star formation rates of star-forming galaxies are typically 0.2 to 0.5 dex lower than observed, but the evolution of the rates track the observations closely. The unprecedented level of agreement between simulation and data across cosmic time makes eagle a powerful resource to understand the physical processes that govern galaxy formation.
We use the ‘Evolution and assembly of galaxies and their environments’ (eagle) cosmological simulation to investigate the effect of baryons on the density profiles of rich galaxy clusters. We focus ...on eagle clusters with M
200 > 1014 M⊙ of which we have six examples. The central brightest cluster galaxies (BCGs) in the simulation have steep stellar density profiles, ρ*(r) ∝ r
−3. Stars dominate the mass density for r < 10 kpc, and, as a result, the total mass density profiles are steeper than the Navarro–Frenk–White (NFW) profile, in remarkable agreement with observations. The dark matter halo itself closely follows the NFW form at all resolved radii (r ≳ 3.0 kpc). The eagle BCGs have similar surface brightness and line-of-sight velocity dispersion profiles as the BCGs in the sample of Newman et al., which have the most detailed measurements currently available. After subtracting the contribution of the stars to the central density, Newman et al. infer significantly shallower slopes than the NFW value, in contradiction with the eagle results. We discuss possible reasons for this discrepancy, and conclude that an inconsistency between the kinematical model adopted by Newman et al. for their BCGs, which assumes isotropic stellar orbits, and the kinematical structure of the eagle BCGs, in which the orbital stellar anisotropy varies with radius and tends to be radially biased, could explain at least part of the discrepancy.
We introduce the Virgo Consortium's Evolution and Assembly of GaLaxies and their Environments (EAGLE) project, a suite of hydrodynamical simulations that follow the formation of galaxies and ...supermassive black holes in cosmologically representative volumes of a standard Λ cold dark matter universe. We discuss the limitations of such simulations in light of their finite resolution and poorly constrained subgrid physics, and how these affect their predictive power. One major improvement is our treatment of feedback from massive stars and active galactic nuclei (AGN) in which thermal energy is injected into the gas without the need to turn off cooling or decouple hydrodynamical forces, allowing winds to develop without predetermined speed or mass loading factors. Because the feedback efficiencies cannot be predicted from first principles, we calibrate them to the present-day galaxy stellar mass function and the amplitude of the galaxy-central black hole mass relation, also taking galaxy sizes into account. The observed galaxy stellar mass function is reproduced to ≲ 0.2 dex over the full resolved mass range, 108 < M
*/M⊙ ≲ 1011, a level of agreement close to that attained by semi-analytic models, and unprecedented for hydrodynamical simulations. We compare our results to a representative set of low-redshift observables not considered in the calibration, and find good agreement with the observed galaxy specific star formation rates, passive fractions, Tully–Fisher relation, total stellar luminosities of galaxy clusters, and column density distributions of intergalactic C iv and O vi. While the mass–metallicity relations for gas and stars are consistent with observations for M
* ≳ 109 M⊙ (M
* ≳ 1010 M⊙ at intermediate resolution), they are insufficiently steep at lower masses. For the reference model, the gas fractions and temperatures are too high for clusters of galaxies, but for galaxy groups these discrepancies can be resolved by adopting a higher heating temperature in the subgrid prescription for AGN feedback. The EAGLE simulation suite, which also includes physics variations and higher resolution zoomed-in volumes described elsewhere, constitutes a valuable new resource for studies of galaxy formation.
On the scale of galactic haloes, the distribution of matter in the cosmos is affected by energetic, non-gravitational processes, the so-called baryonic feedback. A lack of knowledge about the details ...of how feedback processes redistribute matter is a source of uncertainty for weak-lensing surveys, which accurately probe the clustering of matter in the Universe over a wide range of scales. We developed a cosmology-dependent model for the matter distribution that simultaneously accounts for the clustering of dark matter, gas, and stars. We informed our model by comparing it to power spectra measured from the
BAHAMAS
suite of hydrodynamical simulations. In addition to considering matter power spectra, we also considered spectra involving the electron-pressure field, which directly relates to the thermal Sunyaev-Zel’dovich (tSZ) effect. We fitted parameters in our model so that it can simultaneously model both matter and pressure data and such that the distribution of gas as inferred from tSZ has an influence on the matter spectrum predicted by our model. We present two variants, one that matches the feedback-induced suppression seen in the matter–matter power spectrum at the percent level and a second that matches the matter–matter data to a slightly lesser degree (≃2%). However, the latter is able to simultaneously model the matter–electron pressure spectrum at the ≃15% level. We envisage our models being used to simultaneously learn about cosmological parameters and the strength of baryonic feedback using a combination of tSZ and lensing auto- and cross-correlation data.
We investigate the internal structure and density profiles of haloes of mass 1010–1014 M⊙ in the Evolution and Assembly of Galaxies and their Environment (EAGLE) simulations. These follow the ...formation of galaxies in a Λ cold dark matter Universe and include a treatment of the baryon physics thought to be relevant. The EAGLE simulations reproduce the observed present-day galaxy stellar mass function, as well as many other properties of the galaxy population as a function of time. We find significant differences between the masses of haloes in the EAGLE simulations and in simulations that follow only the dark matter component. Nevertheless, haloes are well described by the Navarro–Frenk–White density profile at radii larger than ∼5 per cent of the virial radius but, closer to the centre, the presence of stars can produce cuspier profiles. Central enhancements in the total mass profile are most important in haloes of mass 1012–1013 M⊙, where the stellar fraction peaks. Over the radial range where they are well resolved, the resulting galaxy rotation curves are in very good agreement with observational data for galaxies with stellar mass M
* < 5 × 1010 M⊙. We present an empirical fitting function that describes the total mass profiles and show that its parameters are strongly correlated with halo mass.
We report results for the alignments of galaxies in the EAGLE and cosmo-OWLS hydrodynamical cosmological simulations as a function of galaxy separation (−1 ≤ log10(r/ h
−1 Mpc) ≤ 2) and halo mass ...(10.7 ≤ log10(M
200/h
−1 M⊙) ≤ 15). We focus on two classes of alignments: the orientations of galaxies with respect to either the directions to, or the orientations of, surrounding galaxies. We find that the strength of the alignment is a strongly decreasing function of the distance between galaxies. For galaxies hosted by the most massive haloes in our simulations the alignment can remain significant up to ∼100 Mpc. Galaxies hosted by more massive haloes show stronger alignment. At a fixed halo mass, more aspherical or prolate galaxies exhibit stronger alignments. The spatial distribution of satellites is anisotropic and significantly aligned with the major axis of the main host halo. The major axes of satellite galaxies, when all stars are considered, are preferentially aligned towards the centre of the main host halo. The predicted projected direction–orientation alignment, ϵg+(r
p), is in broad agreement with recent observations. We find that the orientation–orientation alignment is weaker than the orientation–direction alignment on all scales. Overall, the strength of galaxy alignments depends strongly on the subset of stars that are used to measure the orientations of galaxies and it is always weaker than the alignment of dark matter haloes. Thus, alignment models that use halo orientation as a direct proxy for galaxy orientation overestimate the impact of intrinsic galaxy alignments.
The physics driving the cosmic star formation history Schaye, Joop; Vecchia, Claudio Dalla; Booth, C. M. ...
Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
March 2010, Letnik:
402, Številka:
3
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
We investigate the physics driving the cosmic star formation (SF) history using the more than 50 large, cosmological, hydrodynamical simulations that together comprise the OverWhelmingly Large ...Simulations project. We systematically vary the parameters of the model to determine which physical processes are dominant and which aspects of the model are robust. Generically, we find that SF is limited by the build-up of dark matter haloes at high redshift, reaches a broad maximum at intermediate redshift and then decreases as it is quenched by lower cooling rates in hotter and lower density gas, gas exhaustion and self-regulated feedback from stars and black holes. The higher redshift SF is therefore mostly determined by the cosmological parameters and to a lesser extent by photoheating from reionization. The location and height of the peak in the SF history, and the steepness of the decline towards the present, depend on the physics and implementation of stellar and black hole feedback. Mass loss from intermediate-mass stars and metal-line cooling both boost the SF rate at late times. Galaxies form stars in a self-regulated fashion at a rate controlled by the balance between, on the one hand, feedback from massive stars and black holes and, on the other hand, gas cooling and accretion. Paradoxically, the SF rate is highly insensitive to the assumed SF law. This can be understood in terms of self-regulation: if the SF efficiency is changed, then galaxies adjust their gas fractions so as to achieve the same rate of production of massive stars. Self-regulated feedback from accreting black holes is required to match the steep decline in the observed SF rate below redshift 2, although more extreme feedback from SF, for example in the form of a top-heavy initial stellar mass function at high gas pressures, can help.
We report the alignment and shape of dark matter, stellar, and hot gas distributions in the EAGLE (Evolution and Assembly of GaLaxies and their Environments) and cosmo-OWLS (OverWhelmingly Large ...Simulations) simulations. The combination of these state-of-the-art hydrodynamical cosmological simulations enables us to span four orders of magnitude in halo mass (11 ≤ log10(M
200/ h
−1 M⊙) ≤ 15), a wide radial range (−2.3 ≤ log10(r/ h
−1 Mpc) ≤ 1.3) and redshifts 0 ≤ z ≤ 1. The shape parameters of the dark matter, stellar and hot gas distributions follow qualitatively similar trends: they become more aspherical (and triaxial) with increasing halo mass, radius, and redshift. We measure the misalignment of the baryonic components (hot gas and stars) of galaxies with their host halo as a function of halo mass, radius, redshift, and galaxy type (centrals versus satellites and early- versus late-type). Overall, galaxies align well with the local distribution of the total (mostly dark) matter. However, the stellar distributions on galactic scales exhibit a median misalignment of about 45–50 deg with respect to their host haloes. This misalignment is reduced to 25–30 deg in the most massive haloes (13 ≤ log10(M
200/ h
−1 M⊙) ≤ 15). Half of the disc galaxies in the EAGLE simulations have a misalignment angle with respect to their host haloes larger than 40 deg. We present fitting functions and tabulated values for the probability distribution of galaxy–halo misalignment to enable a straightforward inclusion of our results into models of galaxy formations based on purely collisionless N-body simulations.
We use the Galaxies-Intergalactic Medium Interaction Calculation (GIMIC) suite of cosmological hydrodynamical simulations to study the global structure and kinematics of stellar spheroids of Milky ...Way mass disc galaxies. Font et al. have recently demonstrated that these simulations are able to successfully reproduce the satellite luminosity functions and the metallicity and surface brightness profiles of the spheroids of the Milky Way and M31. A key to the success of the simulations is a significant contribution to the spheroid from stars that formed in situ. While the outer halo is dominated by accreted stars, stars formed in the main progenitor of the galaxy dominate at r≲ 30 kpc. In the present study, we show that this component was primarily formed in a protodisc at high redshift and was subsequently liberated from the disc by dynamical heating associated with mass accretion. As a consequence of its origin, the in situ component of the spheroid has different kinematics (namely net prograde rotation with respect to the disc) than that of the spheroid component built from the disruption of satellites. In addition, the in situ component has a flattened distribution, which is due in part to its rotation. We make comparisons with measurements of the shape and kinematics of local galaxies, including the Milky Way and M31, and stacked observations of more distant galaxies. We find that the simulated disc galaxies have spheroids of the correct shape (oblate with a median axial ratio of ∼0.6 at radii of ≲30 kpc, but note there is significant system-to-system scatter in this quantity) and that the kinematics show evidence for two components (due to in situ versus accreted), as observed. Our findings therefore add considerable weight to the importance of dissipative processes in the formation of stellar haloes and to the notion of a 'dual stellar halo'.
We use a large suite of carefully controlled full hydrodynamic simulations to study the ram pressure stripping of the hot gaseous haloes of galaxies as they fall into massive groups and clusters. The ...sensitivity of the results to the orbit, total galaxy mass, and galaxy structural properties is explored. For typical structural and orbital parameters, we find that ∼30 per cent of the initial hot galactic halo gas can remain in place after 10 Gyr. We propose a physically simple analytic model that describes the stripping seen in the simulations remarkably well. The model is analogous to the original formulation of Gunn & Gott, except that it is appropriate for the case of a spherical (hot) gas distribution (as opposed to a face-on cold disc) and takes into account that stripping is not instantaneous but occurs on a characteristic time-scale. The model reproduces the results of the simulations to within ≈10 per cent at almost all times for all the orbits, mass ratios, and galaxy structural properties we have explored. The one exception involves unlikely systems where the orbit of the galaxy is highly non-radial and its mass exceeds about 10 per cent of the group or cluster into which it is falling (in which case the model underpredicts the stripping following pericentric passage). The proposed model has several interesting applications, including modelling the ram pressure stripping of both observed and cosmologically simulated galaxies and as a way to improve present semi-analytic models of galaxy formation. One immediate consequence is that the colours and morphologies of satellite galaxies in groups and clusters will differ significantly from those predicted with the standard assumption of complete stripping of the hot coronae.
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