Context.
Pebble accretion is expected to be the dominant process for the formation of massive solid planets, such as the cores of giant planets and super-Earths. So far, this process has been studied ...under the assumption that dust coagulates and drifts throughout the full protoplanetary disk. However, observations show that many disks are structured in rings that may be due to pressure maxima, preventing the global radial drift of the dust.
Aims.
We aim to study how the pebble-accretion paradigm changes if the dust is confined in a ring.
Methods.
Our approach is mostly analytic. We derived a formula that provides an upper bound to the growth of a planet as a function of time. We also numerically implemented the analytic formulæ to compute the growth of a planet located in a typical ring observed in the DSHARP survey, as well as in a putative ring rescaled at 5 AU.
Results.
Planet Type I migration is stopped in a ring, but not necessarily at its center. If the entropy-driven corotation torque is desaturated, the planet is located in a region with low dust density, which severely limits its accretion rate. If the planet is instead near the ring’s center, its accretion rate can be similar to the one it would have in a classic (ringless) disk of equivalent dust density. However, the growth rate of the planet is limited by the diffusion of dust in the ring, and the final planet mass is bounded by the total ring mass. The DSHARP rings are too far from the star to allow the formation of massive planets within the disk’s lifetime. However, a similar ring rescaled to 5 AU could lead to the formation of a planet incorporating the full ring mass in less than 1/2 My.
Conclusions.
The existence of rings may not be an obstacle to planet formation by pebble-accretion. However, for accretion to be effective, the resting position of the planet has to be relatively near the ring’s center, and the ring needs to be not too far from the central star. The formation of planets in rings can explain the existence of giant planets with core masses smaller than the so-called pebble isolation mass.
In the solar system giant planets come in two flavours: gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn) with massive gas envelopes, and ice giants (Uranus and Neptune) with much thinner envelopes around their cores. ...It is poorly understood how these two classes of planets formed. High solid accretion rates, necessary to form the cores of giant planets within the life-time of protoplanetary discs, heat the envelope and prevent rapid gas contraction onto the core, unless accretion is halted. We find that, in fact, accretion of pebbles (~cm sized particles) is self-limiting: when a core becomes massive enough it carves a gap in the pebble disc. This halt in pebble accretion subsequently triggers the rapid collapse of the super-critical gas envelope. Unlike gas giants, ice giants do not reach this threshold mass and can only bind low-mass envelopes that are highly enriched by water vapour from sublimated icy pebbles. This offers an explanation for the compositional difference between gas giants and ice giants in the solar system. Furthermore, unlike planetesimal-driven accretion scenarios, our model allows core formation and envelope attraction within disc life-times, provided that solids in protoplanetary discs are predominantly made up of pebbles. Our results imply that the outer regions of planetary systems, where the mass required to halt pebble accretion is large, are dominated by ice giants and that gas-giant exoplanets in wide orbits are enriched by more than 50 Earth masses of solids.
Context. Understanding the growth of the cores of giant planets is a difficult problem. Recently, Lambrechts & Johansen (2012, A&A, 544, A32, LJ12) proposed a new model in which the cores grow by the ...accretion of pebble-size objects, as the latter drift towards the star due to gas drag. Aims. We investigate the dynamics of pebble-size objects in the vicinity of planetary embryos of 1 and 5 Earth masses and the resulting accretion rates. Methods. We use hydrodynamical simulations, in which the embryo influences the dynamics of the gas and the pebbles suffer gas drag according to the local gas density and velocities. Results. The pebble dynamics in the vicinity of the planetary embryo is non-trivial, and it changes significantly with the pebble size. Nevertheless, the accretion rate of the embryo that we measure is within an order of magnitude of the rate estimated in LJ12 and tends to their value with increasing pebble-size. Conclusions. The model by LJ12 has the potential to explain the rapid growth of giant planet cores. The actual accretion rates however, depend on the surface density of pebble size objects in the disk, which is unknown to date.
•We explain why Mars-mass embryos formed in the inner Solar System and massive cores in the outer System.•Accretion of planetesimals cannot explain this mass difference.•The scenario of formation of ...embryos and cores can explain this mass difference.
The basic structure of the Solar System is set by the presence of low-mass terrestrial planets in its inner part and giant planets in its outer part. This is the result of the formation of a system of multiple embryos with approximately the mass of Mars in the inner disk and of a few multi-Earth-mass cores in the outer disk, within the lifetime of the gaseous component of the protoplanetary disk. What was the origin of this dichotomy in the mass distribution of embryos/cores? We show in this paper that the classic processes of runaway and oligarchic growth from a disk of planetesimals cannot explain this dichotomy, even if the original surface density of solids increased at the snowline. Instead, the accretion of drifting pebbles by embryos and cores can explain the dichotomy, provided that some assumptions hold true. We propose that the mass-flow of pebbles is two-times lower and the characteristic size of the pebbles is approximately ten times smaller within the snowline than beyond the snowline (respectively at heliocentric distance r<rice and r>rice, where rice is the snowline heliocentric distance), due to ice sublimation and the splitting of icy pebbles into a collection of chondrule-size silicate grains. In this case, objects of original sub-lunar mass would grow at drastically different rates in the two regions of the disk. Within the snowline these bodies would reach approximately the mass of Mars while beyond the snowline they would grow to ∼20 Earth masses. The results may change quantitatively with changes to the assumed parameters, but the establishment of a clear dichotomy in the mass distribution of protoplanets appears robust provided that there is enough turbulence in the disk to prevent the sedimentation of the silicate grains into a very thin layer.
Context. The Rosetta mission and its exquisite measurements have revived the debate on whether comets are pristine planetesimals or collisionally evolved objects. Aims. We investigate the collisional ...evolution experienced by the precursors of current comet nuclei during the early stages of the solar system in the context of the so-called Nice model. Methods. We considered two environments for the collisional evolution: (1) the transplanetary planetesimal disk, from the time of gas removal until the disk was dispersed by the migration of the ice giants; and (2) the dispersing disk during the time that the scattered disk was formed. We performed simulations using different methods in the two cases to determine the number of destructive collisions typically experienced by a comet nucleus of 2 km radius. Results. In the widely accepted scenario, where the dispersal of the planetesimal disk occurred at the time of the Late Heavy Bombardment about 4 Gy ago, comet-sized planetesimals have a very low probability of surviving destructive collisions in the disk. On the extreme assumption that the disk was dispersed directly upon gas removal, a significant fraction of the planetesimals might have remained intact. However, these survivors would still bear the marks of many nondestructive impacts. Conclusions. The Nice model of solar system evolution predicts that typical km-sized comet nuclei are predominantly fragments resulting from collisions experienced by larger parent bodies. An important goal for future research is to investigate whether the observed properties of comet nuclei are compatible with such a collisional origin.
Lunar and terrestrial planet formation in the Grand Tack scenario Jacobson, S. A.; Morbidelli, A.
Philosophical transactions - Royal Society. Mathematical, Physical and engineering sciences/Philosophical transactions - Royal Society. Mathematical, physical and engineering sciences,
09/2014, Letnik:
372, Številka:
2024
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
We present conclusions from a large number of N-body simulations of the giant impact phase of terrestrial planet formation. We focus on new results obtained from the recently proposed Grand Tack ...model, which couples the gas-driven migration of giant planets to the accretion of the terrestrial planets. The giant impact phase follows the oligarchic growth phase, which builds a bi-modal mass distribution within the disc of embryos and planetesimals. By varying the ratio of the total mass in the embryo population to the total mass in the planetesimal population and the mass of the individual embryos, we explore how different disc conditions control the final planets. The total mass ratio of embryos to planetesimals controls the timing of the last giant (Moon-forming) impact and its violence. The initial embryo mass sets the size of the lunar impactor and the growth rate of Mars. After comparing our simulated outcomes with the actual orbits of the terrestrial planets (angular momentum deficit, mass concentration) and taking into account independent geochemical constraints on the mass accreted by the Earth after the Moon-forming event and on the time scale for the growth of Mars, we conclude that the protoplanetary disc at the beginning of the giant impact phase must have had most of its mass in Mars-sized embryos and only a small fraction of the total disc mass in the planetesimal population. From this, we infer that the Moon-forming event occurred between approximately 60 and approximately 130 Myr after the formation of the first solids and was caused most likely by an object with a mass similar to that of Mars.
Context. The classical planetesimal accretion scenario for the formation of planets has recently evolved with the idea that pebbles, centimeter- to meter-sized icy grains migrating in protoplanetary ...disks, can control planetesimal and/or planetary growth. Aims. We investigate how pebble accretion depends on disk properties and affects the formation of planetary systems. Methods. We construct analytical models of pebble accretion onto planetary embryos that consistently account for the mass and orbital evolution of the pebble flow and reflect disk structure. Results. We derive simple formulas for pebble accretion rates in the so-called settling regime for planetary embryos that are more than 100 km in size. For relatively smaller embryos or in outer disk regions, the accretion mode is three-dimensional (3D), meaning that the thickness of the pebble flow must be taken into account, and resulting in an accretion rate that is independent of the embryo mass. For larger embryos or in inner regions, the accretion is in a two-dimensional (2D) mode, i.e., the pebble disk may be considered infinitely thin. We show that the radial dependence of the pebble accretion rate is different (even the sign of the power-law exponent changes) for different disk conditions such as the disk heating source (viscous heating or stellar irradiation), drag law (Stokes or Epstein, and weak or strong coupling), and in the 2D or 3D accretion modes. We also discuss the effect of the sublimation and destruction of icy pebbles inside the snow line. Conclusions. Pebble accretion easily produces a large diversity of planetary systems. In other words, to infer the results of planet formation through pebble accretion correctly, detailed prescriptions of disk evolution and pebble growth, sublimation, destruction and migration are required.
The isotopic dichotomy between non-carbonaceous (NC) and carbonaceous (CC) meteorites indicates that meteorite parent bodies derive from two genetically distinct reservoirs, which presumably were ...located inside (NC) and outside (CC) the orbit of Jupiter and remained isolated from each other for the first few million years of the solar system. Here we review the discovery of the NC–CC dichotomy and its implications for understanding the early history of the solar system, including the formation of Jupiter, the dynamics of terrestrial planet formation, and the origin and nature of Earth’s building blocks. The isotopic difference between the NC and CC reservoirs is probably inherited from the solar system’s parental molecular cloud and has been maintained through the rapid formation of Jupiter that prevented significant exchange of material from inside (NC) and outside (CC) its orbit. The growth and/or migration of Jupiter resulted in inward scattering of CC bodies, which accounts for the co-occurrence of NC and CC bodies in the present-day asteroid belt and the delivery of presumably volatile-rich CC bodies to the growing terrestrial planets. Earth’s primitive mantle, at least for siderophile elements like Mo, has a mixed NC–CC composition, indicating that Earth accreted CC bodies during the final stages of its growth, perhaps through the Moon-forming giant impactor. The late-stage accretion of CC bodies to Earth is sufficient to account for the entire budget of Earth’s water and highly volatile species.
In the core-accretion model, the nominal runaway gas-accretion phase brings most planets to multiple Jupiter masses. However, known giant planets are predominantly Jupiter mass bodies. Obtaining ...longer timescales for gas accretion may require using realistic equations of states, or accounting for the dynamics of the circumplanetary disk (CPD) in the low-viscosity regime, or both. Here we explore the second way by using global, three-dimensional isothermal hydrodynamical simulations with eight levels of nested grids around the planet. In our simulations, the vertical inflow from the circumstellar disk (CSD) to the CPD determines the shape of the CPD and its accretion rate. Even without a prescribed viscosity, Jupiter's mass-doubling time is ~10 super(4) yr, assuming the planet at 5.2 AU and a Minimum Mass Solar Nebula. However, we show that this high accretion rate is due to resolution-dependent numerical viscosity. Furthermore, we consider the scenario of a layered CSD, viscous only in its surface layer, and an inviscid CPD. We identify two planet-accretion mechanisms that are independent of the viscosity in the CPD: (1) the polar inflow-defined as a part of the vertical inflow with a centrifugal radius smaller than two Jupiter radii and (2) the torque exerted by the star on the CPD. In the limit of zero effective viscosity, these two mechanisms would produce an accretion rate 40 times smaller than in the simulation.
An ever-growing observational aggregate of extrasolar planets has revealed that systems of planets that reside in or near mean-motion resonances are relatively common. While the origin of such ...systems is attributed to protoplanetary disk-driven migration, a qualitative description of the dynamical evolution of resonant planets remains largely elusive. Aided by the pioneering works of the last century, we formulate an approximate, integrable theory for first-order resonant motion. We utilize the developed theory to construct an intuitive, geometrical representation of resonances within the context of the unrestricted three-body problem. Moreover, we derive a simple analytical criterion for the appearance of secondary resonances between resonant and secular motion. Subsequently, we demonstrate the onset of rapid chaotic motion as a result of overlap among neighboring first-order mean-motion resonances, as well as the appearance of slow chaos as a result of secular modulation of the planetary orbits. Finally, we take advantage of the integrable theory to analytically show that, in the adiabatic regime, divergent encounters with first-order mean-motion resonances always lead to persistent apsidal anti-alignment.
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