The cross-border Geopark Karawanken/ Karavanke was established in 2011 to reflect the diverse geological composition and varied and rich natural and cultural heritage of the area. The wealth of ...geological heritage is reflected in numerous, already existing geosites, exceptional and unique on a global level, as well as in newly determined mineral and fossil sites. An example of the latter is the fossil site with rare Valanginian-Hauterivian heteromorphic ammonites, located in the SE part of the Karawanken/ Karavanke UNESCO Global Geopark, near Leše village above Prevalje. It is the first and newly discovered locality of heteromorphic ammonites Himantoceras trinodosum Thieuloy, 1964 and Crioceratites cf. nolani Kilian, 1910 in Slovenia. We explore the importance and potential of good cooperation between the local community, paleontologists and other geoscientists, geoheritage (paleontological heritage) conservation and UNESCO Global Geoparks.
Honeybee diseases are one of the most significant and most common causes of honeybee colonies' weakness and death. An early diagnosis of subclinical infections is necessary to implement precautionary ...and control measures. Sampling debris from hive bottom boards is simple, non-invasive, and cheap. In this study, we collected winter debris samples in apiaries located in the continental part of Croatia. We used molecular methods, PCR and qPCR, for the first time to analyze those samples. Laboratory results were compared with the health condition and strength of honeybee colonies at an apiary in spring. Our study successfully identified the presence and quantity of various pathogens, including the presence of
spp. (
spp.), quintefied
, Acute Bee Paralysis Virus (ABPV), Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV), Deformed Wing Virus (DWV), and Sacbrood Virus (SBV). However, our analysis did not detect
,
,
, and
. Samples of winter debris were also examined for the presence and quantification of the
mites, and their natural mite fall was observed in spring. Honeybee colonies were simultaneously infected by an average of four to six pathogens. Some observed honeybee colonies developed characteristic symptoms, while others did not survive the winter.
Slovenia has a long tradition of beekeeping and a high density of honeybee colonies, but less is known about bumblebees and their pathogens. Therefore, a study was conducted to define the incidence ...and prevalence of pathogens in bumblebees and to determine whether there are links between infections in bumblebees and honeybees. In 2017 and 2018, clinically healthy workers of bumblebees (Bombus spp.) and honeybees (Apis mellifera) were collected on flowers at four different locations in Slovenia. In addition, bumblebee queens were also collected in 2018. Several pathogens were detected in the bumblebee workers using PCR and RT-PCR methods: 8.8% on acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), 58.5% on black queen cell virus (BQCV), 6.8% on deformed wing virus (DWV), 24.5% on sacbrood bee virus (SBV), 15.6% on Lake Sinai virus (LSV), 16.3% on Nosema bombi, 8.2% on Nosema ceranae, 15.0% on Apicystis bombi and 17.0% on Crithidia bombi. In bumblebee queens, only the presence of BQCV, A. bombi and C. bombi was detected with 73.3, 26.3 and 33.3% positive samples, respectively. This study confirmed that several pathogens are regularly detected in both bumblebees and honeybees. Further studies on the pathogen transmission routes are required.
Several pathogens are important causes of the observed pollinator decline, some of which could be transmitted between different pollinator species. To determine whether honeybee viruses can be ...transmitted to butterflies, a total of 120 butterflies were sampled at four locations in Slovenia. At each location, butterflies from three families (Pieridae, Nymphalidae, Hesperiidae/Lycenidae) and Carniolan honeybees (Apis mellifera carnica) were collected. The RNA of six honeybee viruses, i.e., acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), black queen cell virus (BQCV), chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV), deformed wing virus A (DWV-A), Sacbrood bee virus (SBV), and Lake Sinai virus 3 (LSV3), was detected by a specific quantitative method (RT-PCR). The presence of ABPV, BQCV, LSV3, and SBV was detected in both butterflies and honeybees. All butterfly and bee samples were negative for CBPV, while DWV-A was detected only in honeybees. The viral load in the positive butterfly samples was much lower than in the positive bee samples, which could indicate that butterflies are passive carriers of bee viruses. The percentage of positive butterfly samples was higher when the butterflies were collected at sampling sites with a higher density of apiaries. Therefore, we believe that infected bees are a necessary condition for the presence of viruses in cohabiting butterflies. This is the first study on the presence of pathogenic bee viruses in butterflies.
Deformed wing virus (DWV) is one of the most widespread viruses that infect honey bee colonies.The route of infection is directly through contaminated food, feces, and air, or indirectly through the ...varroa mite, which acts as a vector. Positive DWV samples were obtained from Carniolan honey bee (Apis mellifera carnica) colonies and of varroa mites from the whole territory of Slovenia during a survey between 2007 and 2014. Nucleotide sequences of 471 nucleotides for the L protein gene and 573 nucleotides for the helicase gene were compared. High genetic diversity was observed among these Slovenian Carniolan honey bee DWV field samples, as well as with almost all the strains previously found in other countries in Europe. Phylogenetic analyses in two regions of the viral genome show that several of the DWV strains obtained from honey bees and varroa are genetically very closely related, confirming the important role of varroa in the transmission of DWV. Identification of closely related sequences also confirmed that the same strains of DWV have been successfully transmitted between various honey bee colonies and apiaries. It has also been established that simultaneous infection, in one apiary, of honey bees with two or more different strains of DWV is quite frequent. This is phylogenetic study that compares honey bee and varroa DWV strains from Carniolan honeybees.
In recent years, there has been growing evidence that certain types of honeybee viruses could be transmitted between different pollinators. Within a voluntary monitoring programme, 180 honeybee ...samples (
) were collected from affected apiaries between 2007 and 2018. Also from August 2017 to August 2018, a total 148 samples of healthy bumblebees (
) were collected at four different locations in Slovenia, and all samples were tested by using RT-PCR methods for six honeybee viruses. Direct sequencing of a total 158 positive samples (acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV
= 33), black queen cell virus (BQCV
= 75), sacbrood bee virus (SBV
= 25) and Lake Sinai virus (LSV
= 25)) was performed from obtained RT-PCR products. The genetic comparison of identified positive samples of bumblebees and detected honeybee field strains of ABPV, BQCV, SBV, and LSV demonstrated 98.74% to 100% nucleotide identity between both species. This study not only provides evidence that honeybees and bumblebees are infected with genetically identical or closely related viral strains of four endemically present honeybee viruses but also detected a high diversity of circulating strains in bumblebees, similar as was observed among honeybees. Important new genetic data for endemic strains circulating in honeybees and bumblebees in Slovenia are presented.
Deformed wing virus (DWV) is one of the most widespread viruses that infect honey bee colonies.The route of infection is directly through contaminated food, feces, and air, or indirectly through the ...varroa mite, which acts as a vector. Positive DWV samples were obtained from Carniolan honey bee (Apis mellifera carnica) colonies and of varroa mites from the whole territory of Slovenia during a survey between 2007 and 2014. Nucleotide sequences of 471 nucleotides for the L protein gene and 573 nucleotides for the helicase gene were compared. High genetic diversity was observed among these Slovenian Carniolan honey bee DWV field samples, as well as with almost all the strains previously found in other countries in Europe. Phylogenetic analyses in two regions of the viral genome show that several of the DWV strains obtained from honey bees and varroa are genetically very closely related, confirming the important role of varroa in the transmission of DWV. Identification of closely related sequences also confirmed that the same strains of DWV have been successfully transmitted between various honey bee colonies and apiaries. It has also been established that simultaneous infection, in one apiary, of honey bees with two or more different strains of DWV is quite frequent. This is phylogenetic study that compares honey bee and varroa DWV strains from Carniolan honeybees. Key words: deformed wing virus, honey bee, varroa, phylogenetic analysis
The European Union (EU) regulates the control of cattle diseases listed in categories A and B of the Animal Health Law (AHL). However, the control of other cattle diseases that have no, or limited EU ...regulation, is left to each member state. Slovenia has five control programmes (CPs) for non-EU regulated cattle diseases: bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL), bluetongue and anthrax. Two (IBR and BVD) are voluntary and the others (EBL, anthrax and bluetongue) are compulsory. The three compulsory CPs are funded by the government. All the CPs are run by the government and laboratory tests are performed by the National Veterinary Institute. The rules for the CPs are laid down in Slovenian legislation. In addition, there is a national directive for the control of salmonellosis. Both BVD and IBR are endemic and have CPs based on increased biosecurity, testing and culling or vaccination, financed by the animal owners. Slovenia has been officially free of EBL since 2005 and carries out surveillance based on serological testing of a representative number of herds and inspection of carcasses at slaughter or necropsy. Vaccination is the main disease control measure for anthrax (sporadic) and bluetongue (currently perceived free-vaccination since 2017). Lack of motivation of farmers to participate in voluntary disease CPs and to implement and follow strict biosecurity measures are the most pressing issues in improving the health status of Slovenian cattle. An overview of the existing CPs and the circumstances leading to their implementation are presented.
PDF
