Sexual orientation is a core aspect of human experience and understanding its development is fundamental to psychology as a scientific discipline. Biological perspectives have played an important ...role in uncovering the processes that contribute to sexual orientation development. Research in this field has relied on a variety of populations, including community, clinical, and cross-cultural samples, and has commonly focused on female gynephilia (i.e., female sexual attraction to adult females) and male androphilia (i.e., male sexual attraction to adult males). Genetic, hormonal, and immunological processes all appear to influence sexual orientation. Consistent with biological perspectives, there are sexual orientation differences in brain development and evidence indicates that similar biological influences apply across cultures. An outstanding question in the field is whether the hypothesized biological influences are all part of the same process or represent different developmental pathways leading to same-sex sexual orientation. Some studies indicate that same-sex sexually oriented people can be divided into subgroups who likely experienced different biological influences. Consideration of gender expression in addition to sexual orientation might help delineate such subgroups. Thus, future research on the possible existence of such subgroups could prove to be valuable for uncovering the biological development of sexual orientation. Recommendations for such future research are discussed.
Organizational/activational theory posits that transgender individuals should perform in the direction of their gender, not their sex, on cognitive tasks that show sex differences—the largest of ...which are observed on visuospatial tasks. Yet, tests of this hypothesis have been mixed for transgender men (TM). One possible reason is that performance shifts associated with the hormonal milieu at testing have not been fully considered in TM. Although “activating” influences, like gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT), are well-characterized in this population, endogenous ones, like ovarian cycling, have gone unaddressed. To provide a more complete picture of hormonal activation, we explored an influence of ovarian milieu on visuospatial performance of TM, and its potential contributions toward effects of sex and GAHT. We administered two male-favoring mental rotation tests (MRTs), and a sex-neutral control task to 22 TM naïve to GAHT (TM-), 29 TM receiving GAHT (TM+), and cisgender men (CM; n = 24) and women (CW; n = 43), testing cycling men (TM-) and women (CW) in either early follicular phase (Follicular) or midluteal phase (Luteal). On MRTs, performance of TM- varied across the menstrual cycle, and matched that of menstrual phase-matched CW. Additionally, cycling individuals in Follicular performed as strongly as TM+ and CM, all of whom performed above individuals in Luteal. Effects did not extend to a verbal control task, on which TM+ performed below others. Rather than conforming to static categories that suggest sex- or gender-typical organization of cognitive circuits, our findings support dynamic shifts in visuospatial ability of TM, and illustrate the need to consider activating effects of hormones beyond GAHT.
•We explored an impact of ovarian milieu on mental rotation of transgender men (TM)•Performance of cycling TM mirrored menstrual phase-matched cisgender women•Follicular, not luteal, performance matched androgen-treated TM and cisgender men•On an estradiol-sensitive control task, androgen-treated TM performed below others•Visuospatial ability of TM may not be sex- or gender-typical—but hormone-responsive
Neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying social inhibition of puberty are not well understood. Here, we use a model exhibiting the most profound case of pubertal suppression among mammals to explore a ...role for RFamide-related peptide-3 RFRP-3; mammalian ortholog to gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH) in neuroendocrine control of reproductive development. Naked mole rats (NMRs) live in sizable colonies where breeding is monopolized by two to four dominant animals, and no other members exhibit signs of puberty throughout their lives unless they are removed from the colony. Because of its inhibitory action on the reproductive axis in other vertebrates, we investigated the role of RFRP-3 in social reproductive suppression in NMRs. We report that RFRP-3 immunofluorescence expression patterns and RFRP-3/GnRH cross-talk are largely conserved in the NMR brain, with the exception of the unique presence of RFRP-3 cell bodies in the arcuate nucleus (Arc). Immunofluorescence comparisons revealed that central expression of RFRP-3 is altered by reproductive status, with RFRP-3 immunoreactivity enhanced in the paraventricular nucleus, dorsomedial nucleus, and Arc of reproductively quiescent NMRs. We further observed that exogenous RFRP-3 suppresses gonadal steroidogenesis and mating behavior in NMRs given the opportunity to undergo puberty. Together, our findings establish a role for RFRP-3 in preserving reproductive immaturity, and challenge the view that stimulatory peptides are the ultimate gatekeepers of puberty.
The biodevelopment of psychological sex differentiation is putatively reflected in several anthropometrics. We examined eight anthropometrics in 1404 Thai participants varying in sex, sexual ...orientation, and gender identity/expression: heterosexual men and women, gay men, lesbian women, bisexual women, sao praphet song (transgender birth-assigned males), toms (transgender birth-assigned females), and dees (birth-assigned females attracted to toms). Exploratory factor analyses indicated the biomarkers should be analyzed independently. Using regressions, in birth-assigned males, less male-typical second-to-fourth digit ratios in the left hand were associated with sexual orientation towards men regardless of gender identity/expression, whereas shorter height and long-bone growth in the arms and legs were more evident among sao praphet song-who are both sexually oriented towards men and markedly feminine. In birth-assigned females, there were no clear sexual orientation effects, but there were possible gender-related effects. Groups of individuals who tend to be more masculine (i.e., toms, lesbians) showed more male-typical patterns on weight and leg length than some groups of individuals who tend to be less masculine (i.e., heterosexual women, dees). Thus, it appears the various anthropometrics inform separate biodevelopmental processes that differentially relate to sexual orientation and gender identity/expression depending on the measure in question as well as birth-assigned sex.
Children show less positivity toward gender-nonconforming (GN) than gender-conforming (GC) peers. Yet, little is known about children's reasoning about peers of varying gender expressions, including ...age-, gender-, and culture-related influences. We investigated how children aged 4- to 5- and 8- to 9-years-old in Hong Kong and Canada (N = 678) reason about their moral judgments of GC and GN peers. After viewing vignettes describing GC and GN boys and girls, we asked children whether each target peer's behavior was right or wrong and why they thought so. We coded children's reasoning using a new coding scheme developed via inductive content analysis. Overall, children's most commonly used reasoning styles were global standard, personal choice, gender stereotypes, "don't know," and others' welfare. Children used more gender stereotype-related reasoning when they were older and from Hong Kong, appraising the GN boy, or when they perceived the target's behavior as wrong. In contrast, children reasoned based on personal choice more when they were from Canada or when they perceived the target's behavior as right. These findings inform how age-, gender-, and culture-related factors are associated with children's reasoning about the acceptability or appropriateness of varying kinds of childhood gendered behavior. They provide insights regarding children's appraisals of different gender expressions by illuminating not only how they view GC and GN peers but also, from their own perspectives, why they do so. These insights have implications for strategies aimed at decreasing gender-related biases and increasing children's acceptance of gender diversity.
Public Significance Statement
This study extended prior literature by comparing Hong Kong and Canadian children's reasoning about moral judgments of peers' gendered behaviors using a sample much larger than those reported in prior research. Apart from testing important variables including participant gender, age, and target gender and target gender expression, we gained valuable insights into cultural variations. Our findings can inform future work focused on improving children's appraisals of peer gender nonconformity via strategies that target reasoning styles.
Gender-related variables for health research Nielsen, Mathias W; Stefanick, Marcia L; Peragine, Diana ...
Biology of sex differences,
02/2021, Letnik:
12, Številka:
1
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
In this paper, we argue for Gender as a Sociocultural Variable (GASV) as a complement to Sex as a Biological Variable (SABV). Sex (biology) and gender (sociocultural behaviors and attitudes) interact ...to influence health and disease processes across the lifespan-which is currently playing out in the COVID-19 pandemic. This study develops a gender assessment tool-the Stanford Gender-Related Variables for Health Research-for use in clinical and population research, including large-scale health surveys involving diverse Western populations. While analyzing sex as a biological variable is widely mandated, gender as a sociocultural variable is not, largely because the field lacks quantitative tools for analyzing the influence of gender on health outcomes.
We conducted a comprehensive review of English-language measures of gender from 1975 to 2015 to identify variables across three domains: gender norms, gender-related traits, and gender relations. This yielded 11 variables tested with 44 items in three US cross-sectional survey populations: two internet-based (N = 2051; N = 2135) and a patient-research registry (N = 489), conducted between May 2017 and January 2018.
Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses reduced 11 constructs to 7 gender-related variables: caregiver strain, work strain, independence, risk-taking, emotional intelligence, social support, and discrimination. Regression analyses, adjusted for age, ethnicity, income, education, sex assigned at birth, and self-reported gender identity, identified associations between these gender-related variables and self-rated general health, physical and mental health, and health-risk behaviors.
Our new instrument represents an important step toward developing more comprehensive and precise survey-based measures of gender in relation to health. Our questionnaire is designed to shed light on how specific gender-related behaviors and attitudes contribute to health and disease processes, irrespective of-or in addition to-biological sex and self-reported gender identity. Use of these gender-related variables in experimental studies, such as clinical trials, may also help us understand if gender factors play an important role as treatment-effect modifiers and would thus need to be further considered in treatment decision-making.
Little is known about gender-related stereotyping among transgender and gender expansive adults. Using the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (AIS; Glick & Fiske, 1996), we examined explicit gender ...attitudes in 3298 cisgender, transgender, and gender expansive respondents designated female at birth (FAB;
n
= 1976 cisgender,
n
= 108 transgender,
n
= 188 gender expansive) and male at birth (MAB;
n
= 922 cisgender,
n
= 52 transgender,
n
= 52 gender expansive). In order to learn more about implicit gender-related stereotyping, a subset of 822 participants (FAB;
n
= 445 cisgender,
n
= 32 transgender,
n
= 51 gender expansive. MAB;
n
= 254 cisgender,
n
= 21 transgender,
n
= 19 gender expansive) completed the gender-leadership Implicit Association Test (IAT; Dasgupta & Asgari, 2004). Cisgender men scored significantly higher than all other groups on hostile sexism, but patterns of endorsement for benevolent sexism and implicit attitudes were more nuanced, with cisgender women and gender expansive FAB often scoring significantly below other groups. We observed that transgender men and transgender women, along with cisgender men and gender expansive MAB, moderately endorsed essentialist views regarding differences between men and women (i.e., complementary gender differentiation). These data reveal novel patterns of gender-related stereotyping, with some corresponding to sex designated at birth and others corresponding to current gender identification. Together, these findings suggest that one’s experienced gender, designated sex at birth, and the intersection between them may relate to gender stereotyping, underscoring the importance of including transgender and gender expansive individuals in this research.
Naked mole-rats are a long-lived rodent species (current lifespan >37 years) and an increasingly popular biomedical model. Naked mole-rats exhibit neuroplasticity across their long lifespan. Previous ...studies have begun to investigate their neurogenic patterns. Here, we test the hypothesis that neuronal maturation is extended in this long-lived rodent. We characterize cell proliferation and neuronal maturation in established rodent neurogenic regions over 12 months following seven days of consecutive BrdU injection. Given that naked mole-rats are eusocial (high reproductive skew where only a few socially-dominant individuals reproduce), we also looked at proliferation in brain regions relevant to the social-decision making network. Finally, we measured co-expression of EdU (newly-born cells), DCX (immature neuron marker), and NeuN (mature neuron marker) to assess the timeline of neuronal maturation in adult naked mole-rats. This work reaffirms the subventricular zone as the main source of adult cell proliferation and suggests conservation of the rostral migratory stream in this species. Our profiling of socially-relevant brain regions suggests that future work which manipulates environmental context can unveil how newly-born cells integrate into circuitry and facilitate adult neuroplasticity. We also find naked mole-rat neuronal maturation sits at the intersection of rodents and long-lived, non-rodent species: while neurons can mature by 3 weeks (rodent-like), most neurons mature at 5 months and hippocampal neurogenic levels are low (like long-lived species). These data establish a timeline for future investigations of longevity- and socially-related manipulations of naked mole-rat adult neurogenesis.
Gender differences in experience of first intercourse are among the largest in sexuality research, with women recalling less pleasure and satisfaction than men. This "enjoyment gap" has not been ...considered in explanations of gender differences in sexual desire. Yet, reinforcement and incentive learning feature prominently in recent models of women's sexual desire, and nonhuman animal models demonstrate their impact at sexual debut. We examined whether women's lower sexual desire is explained by their gender or by gendered experience of enjoyment at sexual debut. Emerging adults (N = 838) provided retrospective accounts of physical (orgasm) and affective (satisfaction) enjoyment at (hetero)sexual debut. We replicated gender differences across behavioral, general, and multidimensional measures of trait sexual desire; however, they were contingent on experience and measurement method. When its cognitive multidimensional properties were appreciated, women's sexual desire varied with experience of orgasm at sexual debut and diverged from men's only when orgasm did not occur. Such effects were not observed for satisfaction, nor for men. Nor did effects of a control event - masturbatory debut - extend beyond solitary sexual desire. Findings underscore the importance of orgasm equality, and suggest its absence at sexual debut may play an unacknowledged role in differentiating sexual desire.
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