This is the opening paper in the special issue of
Fungal Diversity,
which collates the data on defining species. Defining and recognizing species has long been a controversial issue. Since Darwin's ...proposed origin of species, over 30 species criteria have been brought forth and used to define species boundaries. In recent times, phylogenetic analyses based on multiple loci have been extensively used as a method to define species boundaries. However, only a few mycologists are aware that phylogenetic species criteria can mask discordances among fungal groups, leading to inaccurately defined species boundaries. In the current review, we discuss species recognition criteria, how and where these criteria can be applied along with their limitations and derived alternatives. In order to delimit fungal species, authors need to take into account not only the phylogenetic and phenotypic coherence, but also the timing of events that lead to fungal speciation and subsequent diversifications. Variations in the rate of phenotypic diversifications and convergent fungal evolution make it difficult to establish a universal species recognition criterion. The best practice can only be defined in the context of each fungal group. In this review, we provide a set of guidelines, encouraging an integrative taxonomic approach for species delimitation that can be used to define fungal species boundaries in the future. The other papers in this special issue deal with fungal speciation in
Ascomycota, Dothideomycetes
,
Basidiomycota
, basal fungi, lichen-forming fungi, plant pathogenic fungi, and yeasts.
Macrofungi production and economic value have been increasing globally. The demand for macrofungi has expanded rapidly owing to their popularity among consumers, pleasant taste, and unique flavors. ...The presence of high quality proteins, polysaccharides, unsaturated fatty acids, minerals, triterpene sterols, and secondary metabolites makes macrofungi an important commodity. Macrofungi are well known for their ability to protect from or cure various health problems, such as immunodeficiency, cancer, inflammation, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity. Many studies have demonstrated their medicinal properties, supported by both in vivo and in vitro experimental studies, as well as clinical trials. Numerous bioactive compounds isolated from mushrooms, such as polysaccharides, proteins, fats, phenolic compounds, and vitamins, possess strong bioactivities. Consequently, they can be considered as an important source of nutraceuticals. Numerous edible mushrooms have been studied for their bioactivities, but only a few species have made it to the market. Many species remain to be explored. The converging trends and popularity of eastern herbal medicines, natural/organic food product preference, gut-healthy products, and positive outlook towards sports nutrition are supporting the growth in the medicinal mushroom market. The consumption of medicinal mushrooms as functional food or dietary supplement is expected to markedly increase in the future. The global medicinal mushroom market size is projected to increase by USD 13.88 billion from 2018 to 2022. The global market values of promising bioactive compounds, such as lentinan and lovastatin, are also expected to rise. With such a market growth, mushroom nutraceuticals hold to be very promising in the years to come.
Plant translocations allow the restoration of genetic diversity in inbred and depauperate populations and help to prevent the extinction of critically endangered species. However, the successes of ...plant translocations in restoring genetically viable populations and the possible associated key factors are still insufficiently evaluated. To fill this gap, we carried out a thorough genetic monitoring of three populations of Arnica montana that were created or reinforced by the translocation of plants obtained from seeds of two large natural source populations from southern Belgium. We genotyped nine microsatellite markers and measured fitness quantitative traits over two generations (transplants, F1 seed progeny and newly established F1 juveniles). Two years after translocation, the genetic restoration had been effective, with high genetic diversity and low genetic differentiation across generations, extensive contemporary pollen flow, admixture between seed sources in the F1 generation and recruitment of new individuals from seeds. We detected site, seed source and maternal plant effects on plant fitness. The results also suggest that phenotypic plasticity may favour short‐term individual survival and long‐term adaptive capacity and enhance the evolutionary resilience of the populations to changing environmental conditions. We found no sign of heterosis or outbreeding depression at early life stages in the F1 generation. Our findings emphasize the importance of the translocation design (700 transplants of mixed sources, planted at high density) as well as the preparatory site management for the successful outcome of the translocations, which maximized flowering, random mating, and recruitment from seeds in the first years after translocation.
see also the Perspective by Matthew A. Albrecht and Christine E. Edwards.
We introduce a new genus,
, characterised by chocolate brown to dark brown basidiomata and hymenophore, tubes not separable from the pileus context, white to off-white basal mycelium, reddening when ...bruised, amygdaliform to ovoid spores and dark brown spore deposit. Phylogenetic analyses of a four-gene dataset (
6,
1,
2 and
3) with a wide selection of Boletaceae showed that the new genus is monophyletic and sister to the genera
and
in the
group. Two new species in the genus,
and
are described from northern Thailand. Full descriptions and illustrations of the new genus and species are presented. The phylogeny also confirmed the reciprocal monophyly of
and
, which further support the separation of these two genera.
is a poroid genus in Boletaceae that typically has chocolate brown to reddish brown or purplish brown basidiomata with a finely scaly stipe and produces a reddish brown spore deposit. During the ...survey on diversity of boletes in Northern and Northeastern Thailand, several
collections were obtained. Combined evidence from morphology and phylogenetic analyses of a combined three-gene data set (
6,
1 and
2) of the
collections along with selected Boletaceae in the
group indicated that Thai collections represent seven new
species. The analyses also indicated that
belongs in
. Therefore, the transfer of
to
is proposed. Full descriptions and illustrations of the seven new species and
are presented in this study. With the seven new species and the new combination, eight of the eleven described
species are known to occur in Northern and Northeastern Thailand, whereas only one species is known from each of two continents, the Americas and Australia.
Knowing species’ breeding system and mating processes occurring in populations is important not only for understanding population dynamics, gene flow processes, and species' response to climate ...change, but also for designing control plans of invasive species. Geranium robertianum, a widespread biennial herbaceous species showing high morphological variation and wide ecological amplitude, can become invasive outside its distribution range. A mixed‐mating system may be expected given the species’ floral traits. However, autonomous selfing is considered as a common feature. Genetic variation and structure, and so population mating processes, have not been investigated in wild populations. We developed 15 polymorphic microsatellite markers to quantify genetic variation and structure in G. robertianum. To investigate whether selfing might be the main mating process in natural conditions, we sampled three generations of plants (adult, F1, and F2) for populations from the UK, Spain, Belgium, Germany, and Sweden, and compared open‐pollinated with outcrossed hand‐pollinated F2 progeny. The highly positive Wright's inbreeding coefficient (FIS) values in adults, F1, and open‐pollinated F2 progeny and the low FIS values in outcross F2 progeny supported autonomous selfing as the main mating process for G. robertianum in wild conditions, despite the presence of attractive signals for insect pollination. Genetic differentiation among samples was found, showing some western–eastern longitudinal trend. Long‐distance seed dispersal might have contributed to the low geographic structure. Local genetic differentiation may have resulted not only from genetic drift effects favored by spontaneous selfing, but also from ecological adaptation. The presence of duplicate loci with disomic inheritance is consistent with the hypothesis of allotetraploid origin of G. robertianum. The fact that most microsatellite markers behave as diploid loci with no evidence of duplication supports the hypothesis of ancient polyploidization. The differences in locus duplication and the relatively high genetic diversity across G. robertianum range despite spontaneous autonomous selfing suggest multiple events of polyploidization.
Genetic analyses based on 15 polymorphic microsatellite markers supported autonomous selfing as the main mating process for Geranium robertianum in wild populations, despite the presence of attractive signals for insect pollination. Genetic differentiation showed some longitudinal trend. Long‐distance seed dispersal might have contributed to the low geographic structure. Local genetic differentiation may have resulted not only from genetic drift effects favored by spontaneous selfing, but also from ecological adaptation. The presence of duplicate loci with disomic inheritance is consistent with the hypothesis of allotetraploid origin of G. robertianum.
Ecological restoration programmes aiming at population recovery of imperilled plant species increasingly involve plant translocations. Evaluating the genetic status of seed source and target ...populations is essential for designing plant translocation protocols and optimizing recovery success. We developed nine polymorphic microsatellite markers and used three plastid markers to investigate genetic variation and structure of the two last large and six small remaining populations of the self-incompatible, clonally-propagating
Arnica montana
in southern Belgium and bordering France. The aim of the study was to determine the genetic status of these remaining populations and whether the large populations can be used as seed source for translocations. Most small populations maintained high genetic diversity and showed no inbreeding or a heterozygote excess, which may be explained by high genet longevity thanks to clonal propagation, heterosis, inbreeding depression at early development stages and/or no recruitment. Genotypic diversity was low in small populations, with clonal propagation mainly contributing to rosette production. The number of genets, and therefore effective population size, was often very small, restricting compatible mate availability. The situation is therefore more critical than it seems on the field, and bringing new genetic variation is necessary. Although no polymorphism was found in plastid DNA markers, between-population differentiation based on microsatellite markers was moderate, except for very small populations, where it was greater (
F
ST
> 0.200). These patterns of differentiation were likely due to genetic drift effects and demographic stochasticity. We recommend using mixed seed material from the two large populations for translocations, and before conducting reinforcements, to first implement crossing experiments and reintroductions of mixed and crossed material in ecologically restored sites to understand the long-term effects of combining genotypes from different locations.
A new genus, Rostrupomyces is established to accommodate Xerocomus sisongkhramensis based on multiple protein-coding genes ( atp 6, cox 3, tef 1, and rpb 2) analyses of a wide taxon sampling of ...Boletaceae. In our phylogeny, the new genus was sister to Rubinosporus in subfamily Xerocomoideae, phylogenetically distant from Xerocomus , which was highly supported as sister to Phylloporus in the same subfamily Xerocomoideae. Rostrupomyces is different from other genera in Boletaceae by the following combination of characters: rugulose to subrugulose pileus surface, white pores when young becoming pale yellow in age, subscabrous stipe surface scattered with granulose squamules, white basal mycelium, unchanging color in any parts, yellowish brown spore print, and broadly ellipsoid to ellipsoid, smooth basidiospores. In addition, Hemileccinum inferius , also from subfamily Xerocomoideae, is newly described. Detailed descriptions and illustrations of the new genus and new species are presented.
Rhodactina is a small sequestrate genus in Boletaceae with two described species, R. himalayensis and R. incarnata . Phylogenetic analyses of a three-gene dataset including atp 6, tef 1 and rpb 2 of ...Rhodactina species along with selected Boletaceae species showed that all Rhodactina species formed a monophyletic clade, sister to the genera Spongiforma and Borofutus in subfamily Leccinoideae with high support. All of the taxa in the clade have a similar chemical reaction in which basidiospores turn purplish, purplish red to violet or violet grey when in contact with potassium hydroxide. The molecular analyses also showed that all Rhodactina specimens collected from Ubon Ratchathani province, northeastern Thailand, belong to a new species. Morphologically, the new species is different from others by having a markedly prominent hilar appendage and a terminal hilum on its basidiospores. Thus, the new species, Rhodactina rostratispora , is introduced with detailed macroscopic and microscopic descriptions and illustrations.
Assisted gene flow by plant translocations is a solution for restoring populations when other measures were unsuccessful. An essential step for preparing the translocations is the selection of ...populations as seed sources, which should be large, genetically diverse, and produce good quality seeds. For asexually propagating species, census population size may largely exceed the number of genotypes, which means that genetic variation may be low, and inbreeding levels high. We developed 14 microsatellite markers to investigate the clonal extent and the genetic status of four large census‐sized populations used as seed sources for plant translocations and of two small populations of Dianthus deltoides in southern Belgium. Small and two large populations were highly clonal, with a low number of genotypes and low genetic variation. No inbreeding was detected among flowering plants, suggesting that these populations are relictual, consisting of old, asexually spreading individuals, with the risk of high inbreeding and so low plant fitness in the seed progeny. The high genetic differentiation between populations despite their close proximity suggests genetic drift effects and restricted gene flow. Mixing the four source populations may prevent inbreeding in the cross progeny, but also lead to outbreeding depression. Despite large census sizes, highly clonal populations may not be appropriate as seed sources for plant translocation. In case of (or suspicion of) clonal propagation ability, we recommend to use a genetic approach in translocation design. Also, seeds should be collected from more populations, and from individuals separated by larger distances.
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