Stargardt disease (STGD1; MIM 248200) is the most prevalent inherited macular dystrophy and is associated with disease-causing sequence variants in the gene ABCA4 Significant advances have been made ...over the last 10 years in our understanding of both the clinical and molecular features of STGD1, and also the underlying pathophysiology, which has culminated in ongoing and planned human clinical trials of novel therapies. The aims of this review are to describe the detailed phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of the disease, conventional and novel imaging findings, current knowledge of animal models and pathogenesis, and the multiple avenues of intervention being explored.
To describe the earliest features of ABCA4-associated retinopathy.
Case series.
Children with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of ABCA4-associated retinopathy without evidence of macular atrophy.
...The retinal phenotype was characterized by color fundus photography, OCT, fundus autofluorescence (FAF) imaging, electroretinography, and in 2 patients, adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (AOSLO). Sequencing of the ABCA4 gene was performed in all patients.
Visual acuity, OCT, FAF, electroretinography, and AOSLO results.
Eight children with ABCA4-associated retinopathy without macular atrophy were identified. Biallelic variants in ABCA4 were identified in all patients. Four children were asymptomatic, and 4 reported loss of VA. Patients were young (median age, 8.5 years; interquartile range, 6.8 years) with good visual acuity (median, 0.155 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution logMAR; interquartile range, 0.29 logMAR). At presentation, the macula appeared normal (n = 3), had a subtly altered foveal reflex (n = 4), or demonstrated manifest fine yellow dots (n = 1). Fundus autofluorescence identified hyperautofluorescent dots in the central macula in 3 patients, 2 of whom showed a normal fundus appearance. Only 1 child had widespread hyperautofluorescent retinal flecks at presentation. OCT imaging identified hyperreflectivity at the base of the outer nuclear layer in all 8 patients. Where loss of outer nuclear volume was evident, this appeared to occur preferentially at a perifoveal locus. Longitudinal split-detector AOSLO imaging in 2 individuals confirmed that the greatest change in cone spacing occurred in the perifoveal, and not foveolar, photoreceptors. Electroretinography showed a reduced B-wave–to–A-wave ratio in 3 of 5 patients tested; in 2 children, recordings clearly showed electronegative results.
In childhood-onset ABCA4-associated retinopathy, the earliest stages of macular atrophy involve the parafovea and spare the foveola. In some cases, these changes are predated by tiny, foveal, yellow, hyperautofluorescent dots. Hyperreflectivity at the base of the outer nuclear layer, previously described as thickening of the external limiting membrane, is likely to represent a structural change at the level of the foveal cone nuclei. Electroretinography suggests that the initial site of retinal dysfunction may occur after phototransduction.
To evaluate the reliability of ellipsoid zone (EZ) loss width and area measurements from spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) images and track disease progression in childhood-onset ...Stargardt disease (STGD1).
Children with molecularly confirmed STGD1 (
= 46, mean age 12.4 years) underwent SD-OCT for the measurement of the transverse (width) loss of the EZ and en face analysis to quantify the area of EZ loss. All scans were analyzed twice by two graders to evaluate reliability. The annual rate of EZ width and area loss were calculated.
The intra- and intergrader reliability of transverse EZ loss and area of EZ loss measurements at baseline for both graders was 0.99. The mean annual rate of transverse EZ loss (±standard deviation) was 279.5 ± 259.9 μm/y. The mean rate of area of EZ loss (±standard deviation) was 1.20 ± 1.29 mm
/y. The percentage transverse EZ loss was 10.2 ± 9.9%/y, which was significantly lower than the area of EZ loss at 19.4 ± 16.3%/y. High degree of interocular symmetry was observed.
This is a prospective study on the quantification of EZ loss in children with STGD1 and highlights the reliability of SD-OCT in measuring EZ loss. High intra- and intergrader reliability was observed, with good ability to detect changes over time.
Measuring the area of EZ loss was more sensitive compared with transverse EZ width loss measurements and will be valuable for natural history studies and clinical trials requiring sensitive and reliable structural endpoints.
To determine the reliability and repeatability of quantitative evaluation of areas of decreased autofluorescence (DAF) from fundus autofluorescence (FAF) images and track disease progression in ...children with Stargardt disease (STGD1), and to investigate clinical and genotype correlations, disease symmetry, and intrafamilial variability.
Prospective cohort study.
Children and adults with molecularly confirmed STGD1 (n = 90) underwent longitudinal FAF imaging with subsequent semiautomated measurement of the area of DAF and calculation of the annual rate of progression. The age of disease onset was recorded for all subjects, as well as the electroretinography (ERG) group at baseline (n = 86). Patients were grouped for analysis based on the age at baseline and age of onset, into children (n = 56), adults with childhood-onset STGD1 (n = 15), and adults with adult-onset (n = 19). Fifty FAF images were selected randomly and analyzed by 2 observers to evaluate repeatability and reproducibility. Differences between groups, interocular symmetry, genotype–phenotype correlations, and intrafamilial variability were also investigated both for baseline measurements as well as progression rates. We measured visual acuity, molecular genetics, ERG group, FAF metrics, and their correlations.
The mean age of onset ± SD was 9.6 ± 3.4 years for childhood-onset (n = 71) and 28.3 ± 7.8 years for adult-onset STGD1 (n = 19). The intra- and interobserver reliability of DAF quantification was excellent (intraclass correlation coefficients 0.995 and 0.987, respectively). DAF area was symmetric between eyes and the mean rate of progression (SD) was 0.69 (0.72), 0.78 (0.48), and 0.40 (0.36) mm2/year for children, adults with childhood-onset, and adults with adult-onset disease, respectively. Patients belonging to a group 3 ERG phenotype (generalized cone and rod dysfunction) had a significantly greater progression rate. Limited intrafamilial variability was observed.
This is the first large prospective study of FAF in a cohort of molecularly confirmed children with STGD1. DAF area quantification was highly reliable and may thereby serve as a robust structural endpoint. A high rate of progression was observed in childhood-onset disease, making this subtype of STGD1 ideally suited to be considered for prioritization in clinical trials.
•First large prospective study of fundus autofluorescence in a cohort of molecularly confirmed children with STGD1.•Fundus autofluorescence is a robust structural outcome measure in children with Stargardt disease.•A high rate of progression was observed in childhood-onset disease, making this subtype of STGD1 ideally suited to be considered for prioritization in clinical trials.
To assess reliability and repeatability of cone density measurements by using confocal and (nonconfocal) split-detector adaptive optics scanning light ophthalmoscopy (AOSLO) imaging. It will be ...determined whether cone density values are significantly different between modalities in Stargardt disease (STGD) and retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator (RPGR)-associated retinopathy.
Twelve patients with STGD (aged 9-52 years) and eight with RPGR-associated retinopathy (aged 11-31 years) were imaged using both confocal and split-detector AOSLO simultaneously. Four graders manually identified cone locations in each image that were used to calculate local densities. Each imaging modality was evaluated independently. The data set consisted of 1584 assessments of 99 STGD images (each image in two modalities and four graders who graded each image twice) and 928 RPGR assessments of 58 images (each image in two modalities and four graders who graded each image twice).
For STGD assessments the reliability for confocal and split-detector AOSLO was 67.9% and 95.9%, respectively, and the repeatability was 71.2% and 97.3%, respectively. The differences in the measured cone density values between modalities were statistically significant for one grader. For RPGR assessments the reliability for confocal and split-detector AOSLO was 22.1% and 88.5%, respectively, and repeatability was 63.2% and 94.5%, respectively. The differences in cone density between modalities were statistically significant for all graders.
Split-detector AOSLO greatly improved the reliability and repeatability of cone density measurements in both disorders and will be valuable for natural history studies and clinical trials using AOSLO. However, it appears that these indices may be disease dependent, implying the need for similar investigations in other conditions.
Stargardt disease (STGD1; MIM 248200) is the most common inherited macular dystrophy in both adults and children. STGD1 is the most prevalent single gene disorder causing blindness and one of the ...commonest causes of inherited childhood and adulthood visual impairment. This natural history study established a panel of 85 well-characterised molecularly confirmed patients with STGD1 including patients with childhood-onset and adult-onset STGD1. Retinal structure was investigated using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), fundus autofluorescence (FAF), and adaptive optics scanning light ophthalmoscopy (AOSLO). Retinal function was investigated using visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, full-field static perimetry, and microperimetry. Reliable and sensitive metrics were established for application in natural history studies, clinical practice, and therapeutic intervention. Using SD-OCT imaging to investigate the quantification of ellipsoid zone (EZ) loss, measuring the area of EZ loss was more sensitive compared with transverse EZ loss measurements in children. AOSLO imaging showed that split-detection (non-confocal) AOSLO significantly improved the reliability and repeatability of cone density measurements compared with confocal AOSLO. In addition, volumetric indices of retinal function provided a reliable measure of change in retinal sensitivity which is an alternative to mean sensitivity when summarizing static perimetry data to a single outcome measure. However, both best corrected visual acuity and contrast sensitivity testing were found to be insensitive to small changes; and that quantitative assessments are needed to determine a reliable metric for FAF imaging. Interocular structural and functional symmetry was consistently observed in the vast majority of patients and the rate of change for this cohort was reported which provided valuable information on the natural progression of the disease. This study included the largest cohort of children to date who showed a highly variable rate of change of the disease, with highly progressive disease from early childhood, suggesting the importance of analysing children and adults independently. Given that patients with earlier onset typically present with a severe and rapidly progressive phenotype, children may be ideal candidates for clinical trials both in 4 terms of rapid readouts and also potentially deriving the most benefit. The observations in this study will be valuable for both clinical practice as well as for the optimal design of human clinical trials.
We assess cross-sectional and longitudinal microperimetry and full-field static perimetry-derived retinal sensitivity with conventional and volumetric indices of retinal function in childhood-onset ...Stargardt disease (STGD1).
Subjects with molecularly confirmed childhood-onset STGD1 underwent full-field static perimetry and/or microperimetry using custom designed grids. Mean sensitivity (MS) and total volume (V
) were computed for each microperimetry test. MS, V
, and central field volume (V
) were computed for each full-field static perimetry test. Subjects under 18 years old at baseline were classified as children and subjects 18 years or older as adults.
A total of 43 children (mean age at baseline, 13.0 years; range, 8-17) and 13 adults (mean age at baseline, 23.1 years; range, 18-32) were included in the analysis. For full-field static perimetry and microperimetry for both subgroups, intraclass correlation coefficient results for MS and volumetric indices were good to excellent, indicating strong test-retest reliability. Interocular symmetry in terms of baseline measurements and the annual rate of progression was observed. A greater rate of progression was observed in childhood.
To our knowledge, this is the first prospective study of retinal sensitivity in a large cohort of molecularly confirmed subjects with childhood-onset STGD1 demonstrating that children with STGD1 can reliably undertake detailed functional testing. Moreover, using custom designed grids and subsequent topographic analysis, volumetric indices of retinal function provide a reliable measure of retinal sensitivity.
This study highlights the use of microperimetry and full-field static perimetry, as well as volumetric indices of retinal function, in monitoring disease progression.
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