Land use/land cover (LULC) dynamics alter ecosystem services values (ESVs), yet quantitative evaluations of changes in ESVs are seldom attempted. Using Munessa–Shashemene landscape of the Ethiopian ...highlands as an example, we showed estimate of changes in ESVs in response to LULC dynamics over the past four decades (1973–2012). Estimation and change analyses of ESVs were conducted, mainly, by employing GIS using LULC datasets of the year 1973, 1986, 2000 and 2012 with their corresponding global value coefficients developed earlier and our own modified conservative value coefficients for the studied landscape. The results between periods revealed a decrease of total ESVs from US$ 130.5 million in 1973, to US$ 118.5, 114.8 and 111.1 million in 1986, 2000 and 2012, respectively. While using global value coefficients, the total ESVs declined from US$ 164.6 million in 1973, to US$ 135.8, 127.2 and 118.7 million in 1986, 2000 and 2012, respectively. The results from the analyses of changes in the four decades revealed a total loss of ESVs ranging from US$ 19.3 million when using our own modified value coefficients to US$ 45.9 million when employing global value coefficients. Changes have also occurred in values of individual ecosystem service functions, such as erosion control, nutrient cycling, climate regulation and water treatment, which were among the highest contributors of the total ESVs. However, the value of food production service function consistently increased during the study periods although not drastically. All in all, it must be considered a minimum estimate of ESV changes due to uncertainties in the value coefficients used in this study. We conclude that the decline of ESVs reflected the effects of ecological degradation in the studied landscape and suggest further studies to explore future options and formulate intervention strategies.
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•Estimating ecosystem service value changes provided insights into ecosystem status.•We estimate at least US$ 19.3 million loss of service values in four decades.•Huge conversion of forests is still affecting provision of ecosystem services.•Ongoing crop production system affected ecosystem health.•Decline of ecosystem service values reflected effects of ecological degradation.
The objective of this study was to analyze land use/land cover (LULC) changes in the landscape of Munessa-Shashemene area of the Ethiopian highlands over a period of 39 years (1973–2012). Satellite ...images of Landsat MSS (1973), TM (1986), ETM+ (2000), and RapidEye (2012) were used. All images were classified using object-based image classification technique. Accuracy assessments were conducted for each reference year. Change analysis was carried out using post classification comparison in GIS. Nine LULCs were successfully captured with overall accuracies ranging from 85.7% to 93.2% and Kappa statistic of 0.822 to 0.924. The classification result revealed that grasslands (42.3%), natural forests (21%), and woodlands (11.4%) were dominant LULC types in 1973. In 2012, croplands (48.5%) were the major LULC types followed by others. The change result shows that a rapid reduction in woodland cover of 81.8%, 52.3%, and 36.1% occurred between the first (1973–1986), second (1986–2000), and third (2000–2012) study periods, respectively. Similarly, natural forests cover decreased by 26.1% during the first, 21.1% during the second, and 24.4% during the third periods. Grasslands also declined by 11.9, 17.5, and 21.1% during the three periods, respectively. On the contrary, croplands increased in all three periods by 131, 31.5, and 22.7%, respectively. Analysis of the 39-year change matrix revealed that about 60% of the land showed changes in LULC. Changes were also common along the slope gradient and agro-ecological zones with varying proportions. Further study is suggested to investigate detailed drivers and consequences of changes.
The development of spatially differentiated management strategies against invasive alien plant species requires a detailed understanding of their current distribution and of the level of invasion ...across the invaded range. The objectives of this study were to estimate the current fractional cover gradient of invasive trees of the genus Prosopis in the Afar Region, Ethiopia, and to identify drivers of its invasion. We used seventeen explanatory variables describing Landsat 8 image reflectance, topography, climate and landscape structures to model the current cover of Prosopis across the invaded range using the random forest (RF) algorithm. Validation of the RF algorithm confirmed high model performance with an accuracy of 92% and a Kappa-coefficient of 0.8. We found that, within 35 years after its introduction, Prosopis has invaded approximately 1.17 million ha at different cover levels in the Afar Region (12.3% of the surface). Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and elevation showed the highest explanatory power among the 17 variables, in terms of both the invader's overall distribution as well as areas with high cover. Villages and linear landscape structures (rivers and roads) were found to be more important drivers of future Prosopis invasion than environmental variables, such as climate and topography, suggesting that Prosopis is likely to continue spreading and increasing in abundance in the case study area if left uncontrolled. We discuss how information on the fractional cover and the drivers of invasion can help in developing spatially-explicit management recommendations against a target invasive plant species.
Forests provide multiple ecosystem services ranging from local livelihoods and socio-economic benefits to global ecological services. Despite these benefits, human activities have put immense strain ...on forest resources, resulting in forest degradation, impoverishment of the environment, and loss of livelihoods. Hence, monitoring forest cover change and identifying its drivers are essential for developing sustainable forest management strategies that restore forest resources and ecosystem services. This study examined the trends of forest cover changes and its drivers in and around the Semien Mountains National Park, Northwest Ethiopia, from 1984 to 2020. Data from Landsat satellite images of 1984, 1996, 2008, and 2020 were used for forest cover mapping and quantifying the changes using remote sensing techniques. A household survey and key informant interviews were also used to identify the drivers of forest cover change. Results showed an overall decline in forest cover and grasslands while cultivated lands, bare lands and built-up areas have registered gains in the study area. The percentage area under forests declined by about 31% (33,084 ha) over the past 36 years. This loss translates to an annual average forest loss of about 1.02% (919 ha). Conversely, cultivated land, bare land, and built-up areas have experienced an increase of about 159% (33,387 ha), 220% (10,121 ha), and 366% (6356 ha), respectively, over the last 36 years. Analysis of the 36-year change detection matrix revealed that about 62% of the study area experienced a transition, of which 21% and 41% were attributable to net change and swap change, respectively. The observed reduction in forest cover was driven by agricultural expansion, population growth, growing demand for fuelwood, livestock pressure, and forest fires. Such drastic changes in forest cover have a detrimental impact on the community’s well-being, biodiversity, climate, and the availability of forest ecosystem services. Thus, the study recommends concerted efforts by stakeholders to develop participatory forest management and public awareness that consider the co-existence of nature conservation and sustainable livelihoods.
Plantation forests provide numerous benefits to local communities that regularly interact with them. This study aimed at examining the determinant factors predicting the dependencies of local ...communities on plantation forests and their levels of participation on management activities in Basona Worena District, Ethiopia. To collect data, a survey questionnaire was developed by considering demographic, socio-economic, bio-physical, and institutional factors. The questionnaire was administered to a total of 92 randomly selected households. Descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression models were applied to analyze and interpret the data. The results suggested that the most preferred tree species planted by the local farmers included Eucalyptus, Vachellia abyssinica, and Sesbania sesban. Local communities mainly plant and grow plantation forests for fuelwood, construction materials, source of fodder, and income generation. The multiple linear regression models revealed that several independent variables derived from demographic (i.e., sex, age, and family size), socio-economic (i.e., level of education, annual income, livestock ownership, want to keep more livestock than they have at present, length of residence in the area, have the plan to stay in the area in the future, and have enough labor to manage the tree seedlings planted in their landholdings), bio-physical (i.e., distance between the nearby access road and the land of the respondents where they planted and grew trees), and institutional (i.e., have planted trees in their landholdings, get incentives to plant and grow trees in their landholdings, and have sufficient market to sell their plantation forest products obtained from their landholdings) factors significantly affected and predicted the two groups of the dependent variables, i.e., 'the dependencies of local communities on plantation forests' (49% variance explained) and 'their levels of participation on management activities' (53% variance explained). The study highlights existing concerns about planting, managing, developing, and sustainably utilizing plantation forests, which may in turn assist policy- and decision-makers, land use planners, environmental analysts, forest conservation and management experts to consider demographic, socio-economic, bio-physical, and institutional factors that affect the dependencies of local communities on plantation forests and their levels of participation on management activities.
Anthropogenic factors are responsible for major land use and land cover changes (LULCC). Bale Mountain Eco-Region in Ethiopia is a biodiversity-rich ecosystem where such LULCC have occurred. The ...specific objectives of this study were to: (i) determine which LULC types gained or lost most as a result of the observed LULCC; (ii) identify the major drivers of the LULCC/deforestation; and (iii) assess the approximate amount of carbon stock removed as a result of deforestation during the study period. Remote sensing and GIS were used to analyze LULCC. Landsat images acquired in 1985, 1995, 2005, and 2015 were used. Additionally, data from the Central Statistics Agency on cropland expansion, and human and livestock population growth were analyzed and correlations were made. The results showed that forest lost 123,751 ha while farmland gained 292,294 ha. Farmland and urban settlement expansion were found to be major drivers of LULCC. Aboveground carbon stock removed from forest and shrubland was more than 24 million tons. In the future, allocation of land to different uses must be based on appropriate land use policies. Integrating biodiversity and ecosystem values for each land cover as per the UN Sustainable Development Goal (UN-SDG) 15.9 may be one of the mechanisms to limit unplanned expansion or invasion of one sector at the expense of another.
Background Tropical montane forests played an important role in the provision of ecosystem services. The intense degradation and deforestation for the need of agricultural land expansion result in a ...significant decline of forest cover. However, the expansion of agricultural land did not completely destruct natural forests. There remain forests inaccessible for agricultural and grazing purpose. Studies on these forests remained scant, motivating to investigate biomass and soil carbon stocks. Data of biomass and soils were collected in 80 quadrats (400 m.sup.2) systematically in 5 forests. Biomass and disturbance gradients were determined using allometric equation and disturbance index, respectively. The regression modeling is employed to explore the spatial distribution of carbon stock along disturbance and environmental gradients. Correlation analysis is also employed to identify the relation between site factors and carbon stocks. Results The result revealed that a total of 1655 individuals with a diameter of greater than or equai to 5 cm, representing 38 species, were measured in 5 forests. The mean aboveground biomass carbon stocks (AGB CS) and soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks at 5 forests were 191.6 + or - 19.7 and 149.32 + or - 6.8 Mg C ha.sup.-1, respectively. The AGB CS exhibited significant (P < 0.05) positive correlation with SOC and total nitrogen (TN) stocks, reflecting that biomass seems to be a general predictor of SOCs. AGB CS between highly and least-disturbed forests was significantly different (P < 0.05). This disturbance level equates to a decrease in AGB CS of 36.8% in the highly disturbed compared with the least-disturbed forest. In all forests, dominant species sequestrated more than 58% of carbon. The AGB CS in response to elevation and disturbance index and SOC stocks in response to soil pH attained unimodal pattern. The stand structures, such as canopy cover and basal area, had significant positive relation with AGB CS. Conclusions Study results confirmed that carbon stocks of studied forests were comparable to carbon stocks of protected forests. The biotic, edaphic, topographic, and disturbance factors played a significant variation in carbon stocks of forests. Further study should be conducted to quantify carbon stocks of herbaceous, litter, and soil microbes to account the role of the whole forest ecosystem. Keywords: Biomass carbon stock, Disturbances, Dry Afromontane forests, Environmental factors, Regression model, Soil carbon stock
Acacia decurrens (hereafter Acacia) agroforestry system has been expanding rapidly in the northwestern highlands of Ethiopia. The agroforestry system provides multiple eco-environmental services; ...however, there is inadequate quantitative evidence on its livelihood benefits. This study, therefore, investigated the livelihood benefits and challenges of Acacia-based agroforestry system in the Awi area, Northwest Ethiopia. Data was collected through household survey quetionnaires (296 randomly selected Acacia growers), focused-group discussions, interviews, and observations. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used for the data analysis. The findings showed that crop production, charcoal making, animal rearing, and fuelwood selling were the major sources of livelihood. Notwithstanding the complex challenges (Acacia pests/diseases, traditional charcoal-making, limited road access and market opportunities, negative human-health impacts, and high production cost), Acacia-based agroforestry positively affected farmers livelihoods. Comparatively, the natural, physical, financial, human and social capital indices of farmers were higher by 0.25, 0.24, 0.43, 0.25, and 0.06, respectively, in the post-than pre-Acacia periods. The overall livelihood index of farmers increased from 0.47 (pre-Acacia) to 0.71 in the post-Acacia period. The study concluded that this agroforestry practice has immense livelihood benefits, although diverse challenges question its sustainability. Therefore, short and long-term strategies should be designed to strengthen the opportunities and address the challenges.
Abstract
Although Moringa is an important vegetable crop elsewhere, its nutritional and non-food uses are not widely known in Botswana community. This study was conducted to determine the chemical ...composition and mineral contents of leaves of
Moringa oleifera
trees grown in Gaborone, Botswana. The leaf samples were collected from Moringa trees grown in the backyards of six different households in Gaborone city. They were dried separately at 55 ºC for 24 h and then ground to obtain a powder for analysis. The data on the proximate composition of the Moringa samples were subjected to Analysis of Variance to determine statistical differences among the mean values. The overall mean values of moisture, fat, protein, ash, fiber and total available carbohydrates of the leaves were 6.93 ± 0.16, 7.78 ± 0.13, 27.1 ± 0.43, 7.34 ± 0.31, 9.1 ± 1 and 46.5 ± 3%, respectively. The Moringa leaves contained average values of 520 ± 96.0, 7.7 ± 1.3, 30.1 ± 15.5, 0.8 ± 0.1, 82.6 ± 6.4, 1.7 ± 0.2, 1.6 ± 0.2 and 0.02 ± 0.00 mg/100g of Calcium, Iron, Sodium, Zinc, Magnesium, Aluminum, Manganese and Chromium, respectively. Significant differences were observed for moisture, fat, protein and ash contents among the six Moringa samples. The results showed that the leaves are rich in nutrients, particularly with high amounts of protein and ash. This suggests that Moringa leaf could serve as an important protein and mineral supplement in the diet and can be consumed as a vegetable in Botswana. The difference in composition observed between the Moringa leaf samples suggests a possible genotypic difference between the Moringa trees used in this experiment. Thus, there is a need for further study to verify this.
Graphical Abstract
Background
Given the large bamboo resource base with considerable potential to act as an important carbon sink, Ethiopia has included bamboo in the national Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and ...Forest Degradation and enhancing forest carbon stocks (REDD+) and Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) programs. However, little is known about the carbon stock and sequestration potential of bamboo forests. As a result, this research was conducted to quantify the carbon sequestration and storage capacity of
Oxytenanthera abyssinica
forests in the Lower Beles River Basin, northwestern Ethiopia. To this end, a total of 54 circular plots, each measuring 100 m
2
with a radius of 5.64 m, were established to conduct the inventory in Assitsa and Eddida bamboo forests, the typical bamboo sites in Lower Beles River Basin. Biomass accumulation of bamboo was estimated using an allometric equation based on diameter at breast height (DBH) and age. Soil samples were taken from two different soil depths (0–15 and 15–30 cm) to determine soil organic carbon.
Results
Results indicate that the mean biomass of the bamboo forests in the study area accounted for about 177.1
±
3.1 Mg ha
−1
. The mean biomass carbon and soil organic carbon stock of the bamboo forests were 83.2
±
1.5 Mg C ha
−1
and 70
±
1.7 Mg C ha
−1
, respectively. Therefore, the mean carbon stock of the
O. abyssinica
bamboo forests was 152.5
±
2.5 Mg C ha
−1
to 559.8
±
9.0 ton CO
2
ha
−1
.
Conclusion
This study highlights the importance of assessing bamboo’s carbon stock and sequestration potential for enhancing its role in climate change mitigation and sustainable resource management. The
O. abyssinica
bamboo forests of the study area have significant carbon stock and sequestration potential. Therefore, sustainable management of these crucial vegetation resources will enhance their role in providing ecosystem services, including climate change mitigation.
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