The multidisciplinary ‘Phyto-threats’ project was initiated in 2016 to address the increasing risks to UK forest and woodland ecosystems from trade-disseminated Phytophthora. A major component of ...this project was to examine the risk of Phytophthora spread through nursery and trade practices. Close to 4000 water and root samples were collected from plant nurseries located across the UK over a three-year period. Approximately half of the samples tested positive for Phytophthora DNA using a metabarcoding approach with 63 Phytophthora species identified across nurseries, including quarantine-regulated pathogens and species not previously reported in the UK. Phytophthora diversity within nurseries was linked to high-risk management practices such as use of open rather than closed water sources. Analyses of global Phytophthora risks identified biological traits and trade pathways that explained global spread and host range, and which may be of value for horizon-scanning. Phytophthoras having a higher oospore wall index and faster growth rates had wider host ranges, whereas cold-tolerant species had broader geographic and latitudinal ranges. Annual workshops revealed how stakeholder and sector ‘appetite’ for nursery accreditation increased over three years, although an exploratory cost-benefit analysis indicated that the predicted benefits of introducing best practice expected by nurseries outweigh their costs only when a wider range of pests and diseases (for example, Xylella) is considered. However, scenario analyses demonstrated the significant potential carbon costs to society from the introduction and spread of a new tree-infecting Phytophthora: Thus, the overall net benefit to society from nurseries adopting best practice could be substantial.
Abstract
Trade-disseminated Phytophthora species are implicated in a recent upsurge of Phytophthora diseases in the UK and the establishment and spread of these pathogens in the wider UK environment ...via diseased propagation material. The costs and benefits of introducing best practices in the nursery sector and for society at large were explored in relation to avoiding potential impacts of introductions of new pathogens in the wider woodland environment. The analysis formed part of a wider project on the drivers of introduction and spread of Phytophthora species and opportunities for mitigation by plant nurseries. The effect in reducing the risk of introductions of new pathogens is not easily quantified, but the shorter the interval between avoided outbreaks, the greater the benefit of introducing best practices. The maximum interval between avoided outbreaks for the benefits to exceed the costs from a nursery perspective can be estimated. The results indicate that the benefits of introducing nursery best practices are unlikely to outweigh the costs from a nursery perspective where Phytophthora alone is considered. The analysis is extended by also considering benefits in reducing risks of Xylella. Scenario analysis based upon modelling harvested wood and carbon impacts is then used to investigate potential costs that would be expected to be borne by society in the event of the introduction and spread of a new Phytophthora species affecting either oak or Sitka spruce stands in Britain. The results indicate the magnitude of the externality involved, with the cost of an outbreak affecting oak estimated at around £500 million and one affecting Sitka spruce at £11 300 million. While approaches taken in the paper are exploratory, there seems a strong case for some social incentives or control in the nursery sector, to reduce the probability of new diseases infecting British forests.
Evidence from behavioural economics illustrates how cognitive factors can affect the preferences, values and choices of individual decision-makers. The evidence also shows how policy ‘nudges’ that ...account for the influence of cognitive factors can shift choices in socially desirable directions. Despite a wide range of potential applications, little research has been published to date applying behavioural economics in forestry. As an example of how behavioural economics could be used, this paper considers the potential for nudges in encouraging woodland creation to help meet climate change mitigation and adaptation goals. Although forests offer significant climate change mitigation and adaptation potential, land managers are often reluctant to create new woodlands, hindering accomplishment of national targets. Nudges could potentially help overcome the barriers. Disaggregating behavioural elements of woodland creation using the Stages of Change model, we identify a number of relevant intervention points at which nudges could be applied. It is argued that nudges may best be tailored towards different types of land manager taking account of differences in attitudes, motivations, circumstances and behaviour. To be effective, a combination with other policy instruments is likely to be needed. Pilot studies are recommended in determining which nudges are cost-effective. The paucity of existing studies drawing upon behavioural economics, or testing out nudges, points to this as a current frontier of both forest economics and policy, but can also be considered a frontier of environmental policy more widely. Developing a consistent valuation framework allowing for the social endogeneity of preferences and for optimization (or some other protocol) to be used in selecting policy options remains a fundamental challenge.
•Cognitive factors imply non-market values can vary by an order of magnitude.•Influences of cognitive factors on ecosystem values pose key environmental policy challenges.•Selecting policy options allowing for the social endogeneity of values is difficult.•Influences of cognitive factors on choices provide opportunities for forest policy-makers.•Nudges at key points could provide a cost-effective instrument to encourage woodland creation.
Although widely considered to be a core aspect of quality assurance of climate change mitigation activities, additionality remains a source of much controversy in relation to carbon accounting and ...carbon markets. This article illuminates the multi-faceted nature of the concept and develops a taxonomy of different forms. It provides an overview of how additionality is currently applied in relation to both compliance and voluntary carbon markets, including tests used and underlying evidence base requirements. This draws upon and updates an earlier review commissioned to help inform development of a Woodland Carbon Code designed to underpin climate change mitigation activities in the UK by the forest sector. Sources of uncertainty and trade-offs in practical application of the concept are highlighted, and potential perverse incentives explored.
We have conducted one of the first attempts to integrate empirical biodiversity data with economic modelling of optimum rotation length for forest stands. We sought relationships between different ...taxonomic groups and stand age for a range of forest types based upon UK biodiversity assessment data. We then examined the impact of these relationships in combination with biodiversity monetary values on stand-level forest management – something which ecologists might anticipate would lead to extended rotations. Although we found some evidence of significant relationships between overall species richness and stand age for many of the forest types considered, with examples of minima at around 40 years for Sitka spruce in foothills and Corsican pine in lowlands and a maximum at around 50 years for Scots pine in lowlands, at individual taxonomic group level only about 4% of responses were different from constant. However, the overall results mask potentially diverse relationships for individual taxonomic groups. We found evidence of increasing and decreasing relationships (as well as no response) at individual group level which may result from the particular niche requirements and the species assemblages present. When incorporated into the economic Hartman model, the main relationships were found to make minimal difference (with two exceptions) to optimal rotation length under standard assumptions based upon biodiversity values from the literature. When we extended our modelling to incorporate a higher value afforded to biodiversity than published values, we saw significant changes in optimal rotation length in more cases. Our results suggest the need for further refinement of biodiversity estimation and valuation methodology – and we make recommendations for future developments.
•Biodiversity data for British forests integrated with economic modelling of rotation.•Some evidence of relationships between overall species richness and stand age.•Explored impacts of biodiversity valuation for several forest types.•Inclusion of biodiversity often leads to little change in optimal rotation length.
•Businesses supported the idea of private sector investment in urban forests.•They would fund air purification, flood alleviation and aesthetic enhancement.•Voluntary payments towards ...location-specific, costed projects were preferred.•A business case with examples of real benefits must be made upfront.•More business-funded urban PES schemes need to be trialled and analysed.
Urban trees and woodlands provide a wide range of ecosystem services (ES) to society, for example, flood risk reduction, air purification, and moderation of urban heat islands. Despite this, local government budgets for tree planting and maintenance have declined in many cities throughout the world. Thus far, the academic literature has largely ignored whether businesses are willing to help fund urban forests and the ES they provide. Business financing via payments for ecosystem services (PES) within the urban realm is also under-researched and lacking in practice. This study aims to address these research gaps. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 30 businesses of varying sizes and sectors, operating in Southampton, UK. Respondents thought a public-private partnership would be feasible, with a focus on voluntary payments towards enhancing air quality, reducing flood risk, and improving aesthetics. Respondents would prefer to choose from a list of location-specific, cost-effective, monitored projects to fund directly, for marketing and/or corporate social responsibility purposes. To facilitate business funding of urban forest-based ES, clear communication of the expected environmental benefits and a strong business case are required, drawing on the experience of similar initiatives. From our findings, we recommend the piloting and analysis of such PES schemes.
•New conceptual framework for cost-effectiveness analysis of woodlands for water PES.•Institutional factors often play fundamental role in PES scheme cost-effectiveness.•‘In-principle’ and ...‘pragmatic’ perspectives can diverge on PES cost-effectiveness.•Societal co-benefits can exceed financial costs of woodlands for water PES.•Danish case studies provide examples where social cost-effectiveness is negative.
The evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of Payments for ecosystem services (PES) in fostering positive environmental outcomes has been central to the scientific debate on their implementation. PES cost-effectiveness can be affected by a myriad of environmental, institutional and socio-economic factors operating at different spatial and temporal scales. Moreover, it can be affected by synergies and trade-offs in the provision of ecosystem services (ES). Planting trees is increasingly considered an effective measure to provide water-related ES. It can enhance watershed services such as nutrient retention, erosion control, stream flow regulation, protection against extreme events (e.g., floods and landslides), and lead to a permanent change in land use, replacing agricultural activities that give rise to diffuse pollution. Very few studies currently exist on the cost-effectiveness of tree planting for water quality benefits PES schemes in Europe. Including both review and research elements, this paper highlights challenges in undertaking such assessments. It develops a conceptual framework to help underpin future studies, with its application to three case studies in Denmark explored. Particular attention is given to the estimation of environmental effectiveness in the provision of water quality services and the importance of co-benefits. In the case where we exclude co-benefits from the analysis, the financial cost-effectiveness is always above zero, with central estimates (without discounting environmental improvements) of €10/Kg N, and €0.36 to €0.50/mg pesticide. Once co-benefits are accounted for, however, the social cost-effectiveness is negative (except for under the low estimates) as the value of the co-benefits exceeds the costs, with central estimates of -€28/Kg N, and -€0.34 to -€0.23/mg pesticide. The paper discusses the implications and lessons for PES cost-effectiveness analysis, and identifies research gaps. Increased knowledge of forest water benefits and the cost-effectiveness of woodlands for water schemes would help underpin future incentives to enhance the provision of these ES.
The paper provides an overview of the papers included in this special issue, and presents thoughts about New Frontiers of Forest Economics. The paper argues that science does not mean analysis alone; ...it should be complemented by synthesis and forest economics is a promising field to rediscover synthesis as a methodology of science. The paper sets the goal of boundless profession of forest economics and suggests three key areas of research: (i) economic models that interweave other-regarding and non-cooperative self-interest preferences; (ii) rigorous analysis and synthesis of externalities and development of new economic approaches to address the diversity of interrelated property rights of complex ecosystems; and (iii) treating markets and political institutions as entangled institutions.
•The need of New Frontiers of Forest Economics (NEFFE) is discussed.•Science includes analysis as well as synthesis.•Economic models should interweave other-regarding and self-interest preferences.•Rigorous analysis and synthesis of externalities should be the focus.•Markets and political institutions should be treated as entangled institutions.
New frontiers of forest economics Kant, Shashi; Wang, Sen; Deegen, Peter ...
Forest policy and economics,
10/2013, Letnik:
35
Journal Article
Recenzirano
This special issue of Forest Policy and Economics is based on the papers presented and discussions held at the International Conference on the New Frontiers of Forest Economics, June 26–30, 2012 held ...at ETH, Zurich, Switzerland. This paper discusses the need of new frontiers of forest economics, provides an overview of the special issue, and presents thoughts about new frontiers. The paper suggests that all knowledge of forest economists is conjectural, and without the competition of contradictorily theories forest economics sinks into intellectual poverty. The progress of forest economics will need a never ending fabrication on new and venturous theories for solving problems and strong attempts to refute, to critically assess and discuss, and to test empirically the new theories. The paper discusses three areas for new frontiers of forest economics — integration of sciences using multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches, incorporation and integration of various streams of economics, and answering the unanswered questions by developing new models and methods.
•The need of new frontiers of forest economics (neFFE) is discussed.•The neFFE will need a never ending fabrication on new and venturous theories.•The neFFE will include multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches.•The neFFE should incorporate and integrate various streams of economics.•The neFFE will answer the unanswered questions by developing new models and methods.
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