In this study, the evolution, the development and the development environment of solution dolines of glaciokarst (the Alps and the Dinarides) are studied. Based on morphological observations (partly ...with the help of literary data), the dolines of sample sites were put into doline types (giant solution doline, small-sized solution doline and schachtdoline). The various features of the dolines belonging to different doline types were analysed and compared: their size, shape, elongated nature and the slope angle of their side slope. Giant solution dolines are much more similar to the dolines of the temperate belt rather than to small-sized solution dolines or schachtdolines. At temperate climate, giant solution dolines developed under the tree line similarly to dolines of the temperate belt, and not above the tree line. Below the tree line, the dolines grew horizontally to the effect of horizontal dissolution. Later, in the glacials, they developed laterally mainly along their longer axis by glacial erosion. They got into their periglacial environment during the uplifting of the bearing area. In mountains where they are absent, the circumstances of their environment were not present either because the uplifting of the mountain was fast or it was covered by non-karstic rock. The shapes of small-sized solution dolines and schachtdolines prove that their increase happened by deepening. Their deepening was caused by the meltwater of the snow patches of snow drifts which water does not move laterally because of the rock debris of the floor and thus, solution works downwards in the features. Deepening and snow accumulation strengthen each other. These karstic depressions are connected to the periglacial zone because treeless environment favours snow drifts. If the depression is completely filled with snow in most part of the year, the snow patch is wide thus, dissolution affects the total width of the doline. A doline (schachtdoline) with vertical sides and plain floor develops. If snow-fill is only partial in most part of the year, the snow patch and thus, dissolution will have a smaller area and a small-sized solution doline with funnel shape develops.
Eighty-one karst types and their main characteristics are described in this study, including the conditions of their development, the main characteristics of their karstification and their ...characteristic features. The classification includes the karst types of the Earth, a concise description of each karst type and the possibilities of belonging to several types of various karst areas. The classification of types is hierarchical in terms of groups, subgroups, types and subtypes. Karst can be classified according to their momentary state (the group of static karst types) and to their development (group of dynamic karst types). The group of static karst types has the azonal and zonal subgroups. zonal karst types may be situated under any climate. These karst types are categorized according to their geological characteristics (age of karstification, constituting rock, extent of coveredness, structure), their elevation, expansion, the morphology of their surface, hydrology and to the effects occurring on the karst. Taking the above mentioned factors into consideration, the author distinguishes various types and describes their characteristics. Zonal karst types are also described (tundra karst, temperate karst, subtropical karst, tropical karst), karst types that can be distinguished based on their geomorphic evolution are identified and their characteristics are presented.
In the Bakony Region, in the mines of dolomite (dolostone) surfaces between the settlements of Márkó and Pétfürdő (Várpalota), in rubble beds exposed by them and with the consideration of these, the ...process of rubble formation is studied here in order to interpret the characteristics of rubble beds (different thicknesses and vertical changes in grain size) in the studied area. The mines in the area (differentiated between old-school/traditional mining or mechanical mining) were classified with the consideration of mining methods. Rubble varieties were differentiated, the bedding of rubble beds was studied along profiles, and the elevation difference between mines of mechanical mining and Stream Séd was determined. The calcareous content and structure compactness of 124 samples originating from dolomite, rubble, and non-rubble in the Bakony Region were compared. The data prove that the rubble developed by dissolution. Dissolution might have been caused by both meteoric water and karstwater. The rubble of mines excavated by traditional mining mainly developed to the effect of the dissolution effect of meteoric water (the rubble beds are of coarser and coarser grain size downwards), while the mines excavated by mechanical mining were formed to the dissolution effect of karstwater (the rubble beds are coarser and coarser upwards). The formation of rubble by karstwater origin has not been mentioned in the literature yet. However, dissolution of meteoric water origin may also take place in the case of the latter, and dissolution of karstwater origin also plays a role in the development of mines excavated by traditional mining.
This study describes the direct and indirect effects of mining on the karst of the Bakony Region. For this, the results of geological and mining research of the last century, the results of ...hydrological research of fifty years, as well as the investigations of several decades on the karst of the mountain region are used. Direct effects include the exploitation of filling materials (limonite, kaolinite, manganese ore, and bauxite) from paleokarst features, dolomite rubble, activities exploring or destroying cavities, and the pollution of cavity systems with mining waste (dirt). An indirect effect is karst water extraction. Mining activities (coal and quarrying) resulting in the development of pseudokarstic features are also mentioned here. It can be stated that the effects on the karst and karst features may be permanent and even renewing, but the original state may also have returned or can be expected in the near future. Damages may be local or regional. A regional effect is the decrease in karst water level, which has the most significant effect on the environment, but it has already reached its original state by now.
The landscape evolution of the glacier valleys of glaciokarsts is described. Depending on the character of coveredness (quality and thickness of the cover), altitude and the presence of karst ...features, different ways of geomorphic evolution occur adjacently. Most widespread is the denudation of bare surfaces by karren formation. During this process, beds are denuded, which is primarily controlled by the dip direction of the beds. The denudation of beds may modify the original cross-section of valleys. On terrains covered with caprock, the cover is becoming thinner by erosion processes since the debris is transported into the karst depressions and then from here into the karst. On terrains covered with limestone debris, if the cover is purely limestone debris, denudation is cyclical. The thick cover becomes thinner by dissolution and subsequently, the bedrock is dissolved by karren formation if water with dissolution capacity arrives at the bedrock. Then, the debris that developed on the bedrock makes the cover thicker from below. Reaching an adequate thickness, the process is repeated by the dissolution of the cover debris. In cirques, the superficial deposit is transported into the karst, which is supplied from the slopes, increasing the upfilling of the feature.
In this study, the karst systems (karst types) of the Bakony Region are classified and described. The karst features and the groundwater (karstwater) flow, their horst (block) types and the ...hydrological cycle of horst types were taken into consideration. In the mountains, regional flow with a hypogene branch (hypogene karst system) and epigene karsts systems of local flow were distinguished. Among local epigene systems, epigene karst system, mixed epigene karst system, complex mixed epigene karst system, incomplete epigene karst system and semi-closed epigene karst system were distinguished. Local epigene systems are only temporarily (but not all of them) separated from the regional system that developed below and around them. During their development, separated local systems are more and more becoming the descending branches of regional systems.
The karren formation and karren features of bare slopes is studied. The occurrence of various karren features was measured on slopes with different inclination. The occurrence of various karren ...features on slopes has been presented according to slope inclination values. The slopes were put into slope categories and their karren features were given. Thus, the karren formation of the bare slopes of various karst types and karst features (glaciokarst, coastal karst, tropical karst, mediterranean karst, collapse dolines, gorges, caves etc.) can be described. It can be stated that on limestone with the increase of the inclination of the bearing slope, the diversity of karren features decreases and those of flow origin will be increasingly dominant. However, with the increase of slope inclination, features of flow origin will be increasingly simpler. On limestone, on slopes with a smaller dip and on slopes of less soluble rocks, the distribution of karren features of seepage origin increases. On glaciokarst, where bare slopes are widespread and of various inclination, karren are diverse and the distribution of various types is also considerable. In other karst areas, small-inclined slopes (coastal karst, tropical karst) or very large-inclined slopes (tropical karst, collapse dolines) are predominant and thus, the distribution of some karren features (e.g. rinnenkarren) is limited. The change of slope inclination may result in the change of karren formation. On glaciokarst, bare and subsoil karren formation are separated from each other, on mediterranean and tropical karst, they are less separated from each other and the latter prepares the former. On halite, the effect of slope inclination on karren formation may be modified by intensive dissolution. The karren formations of halite and tropical karst are partly similar which can be explained by intensive dissolution in both cases.
The karst of the horsts of the Bakony Region belonging to horst types of different development is described. Horsts elevated to the summit position are characterised by the most widespread and ...diverse karstification (with covered karst, cave-ins and shafts). Cryptopeneplains affect the karstification of horsts elevated to the summit position, but karst features also occur in their areas. On threshold surfaces of marginal position, the hypogene branches of regional flow systems influenced the development of spring caves. The karstification of basaltic mountains has been mainly governed by the properties of the basalt caprock (the major features being ponors with blind valleys and caprock dolines).
This study describes the development environments of subsidence dolines based on literary data (development environments create favorable conditions for the local denudation of superficial deposit ...and thus, for the development of depressions). Development environments are the inclination of the bearing surface, the secondary porosity of the bedrock, the characteristics of the cover, water influx into the cover, karstwater and groundwater, melting permafrost, and anthropogenic activity. These may become optimal when controlled by various geological, geomorphological, and climatic factors. Development environments may be qualitative (there is doline development in case of its presence) and quantitative (doline development occurs in case of suitable quantitative values). The development environment groups of subsidence dolines are environment groups independent of water level, environment groups dependent on water level, and anthropogenic environment groups. In the case of an environment group independent of water level, surface morphology, cover characteristics, geomorphic evolution, and water supply are determining, while in case of an environment group dependent of water level, subsurface water level and its fluctuations and the characteristics of rainfalls interrupting dry seasons are crucial. Anthropogenic impacts mainly affect doline development through water balance.
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