This study evaluated the effects of treatment with meloxicam (a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug), parity, and blood progesterone concentration on the dynamics of the uterine microbiota of 16 ...clinically healthy postpartum dairy cows. Seven primiparous and 9 multiparous postpartum Holstein cows either received meloxicam (0.5 mg/kg SC, n = 7 cows) once daily for 4 days (10 to 13 days in milk (DIM)) or were untreated (n = 9 cows). Endometrial cytology samples were collected by cytobrush at 10, 21, and 35 DIM, from which the microbiota analysis was conducted using 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. A radioimmunoassay was used to measure progesterone concentration in blood serum samples at 35 DIM and cows were classified as ˃ 1 ng/mL (n = 10) or ≤ 1 ng/mL (n = 6). Alpha diversity for bacterial genera (Chao1, Shannon-Weiner, and Camargo's evenness indices) were not affected by DIM, meloxicam treatment, parity, or progesterone category. For beta diversity (genera level), principal coordinate analysis (Bray-Curtis) showed differences in microbiota between parity groups. At the phylum level, the relative abundance of Actinobacteria was greater in primiparous than multiparous cows. At the genus level, there was lesser relative abundance of Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Neisseriaceae, Paracoccus, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus and greater relative abundance of Bacillus and Fusobacterium in primiparous than multiparous cows. Bray-Curtis dissimilarity did not differ by DIM at sampling, meloxicam treatment, or progesterone category at 35 DIM. In conclusion, uterine bacterial composition was not different at 10, 21, or 35 DIM, and meloxicam treatment or progesterone category did not affect the uterine microbiota in clinically healthy postpartum dairy cows. Primiparous cows presented a different composition of uterine bacteria than multiparous cows. The differences in microbiota associated with parity might be attributable to changes that occur consequent to the first calving, but this hypothesis should be investigated further.
Methicillin resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) colonization has recently been identified in pigs and people that work with pigs, raising concerns about the role of pigs as reservoirs of MRSA for ...human infection. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the prevalence of MRSA colonization in pigs and pig farmers in Ontario, Canada and to characterize MRSA strains. Nasal and rectal swabs were collected from 285 pigs from three different age groups from 20 pig farms. Nasal swabs were collected from farm personnel and a brief questionnaire was also administered. The prevalence of MRSA colonization in farms was 45% (9/20) whereas the prevalence in pigs was 24.9% (71/285). There was no difference in MRSA colonization between age groups. The prevalence of MRSA colonization in pig farmers was 20% (5/25). There was a correlation between the presence of MRSA in pigs and humans on farms (
P value
=
0.001). The results of spa typing revealed the predominant strain in pigs and humans was eGenomics
spa type 539 (Ridom t034, clonal complex 398) which accounted for 59.2% of isolates and has been reported in pigs in Europe. A common human epidemic clone, CMRSA-2 (USA100, clonal complex 5) was also found in both pigs and pig personnel. Indistinguishable strains were found in pigs and pig personnel on all five farms with a colonized human. This study demonstrates that MRSA is common in pigs in Ontario, Canada, and provides further support to concerns about transmission of MRSA between pigs and humans.
Pet ownership can have health, emotional and social benefits; however, pets can serve as a source of zoonotic pathogens. One large, regional survey reported more than 75% of households having contact ...with a pet,1 and close, intimate interactions with pets (e.g., sleeping in beds with owners, face licking) are common.1,2 Additional surveys suggest that the general public and people at high risk for pet-associated disease are not aware of the risks associated with highrisk pet practices or recommendations to reduce them; for example, 77% of households that obtained a new pet following a cancer diagnosis acquired a high-risk pet.1,3 This statistic is not surprising - studies suggest physicians do not regularly ask about pet contact, nor do they discuss the risks of zoonotic diseases with patients, regardless of the patient's immune status.1,3,4 Patient surveys and epidemiologic studies on the topic suggest that the occurrence of pet-associated disease is low overall.1,8 Owing to a relative absence of reportable pathogens and complicating factors (e.g., non-pet exposure pathways, frequent subclinical shedding by pets), the proportion of human disease attributable to pets is unknown, and any reported frequency of such infections is likely underestimated. Yet, pet contact has been identified as a risk factor for many diseases, with case-control studies and molecular typing data strongly supporting pet sources for bacterial (e.g., Campylobacter, Salmonella), fungal (e.g., dermatophytes), parasitic (e.g., Toxoplasma gondii) and viral pathogens (e.g., lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus).6,9-12 Although pets do not typically directly transmit arthropod-borne diseases to people (e.g., Lyme borreliosis, ehrlichiosis, anaplasmosis), they do bring the zoonotic disease vectors - ticks and fleas - in close proximity to people, potentially increasing disease risk. In immunocompetent people, salmonellosis most often results in self-limiting gastrointestinal disease, although serious disease can develop. The disease can be more severe in patients at high risk, resulting in bacteremia or serious systemic and localized infections, such as meningitis (in newborns) and osteomyelitis (in patients with sickle cell anemia). Although many pet species have been implicated in human disease, amphibians, reptiles, exotic animals, rodents and young poultry pose the greatest risk. Reptiles and amphibians are estimated to be responsible for 11% of all sporadic Salmonella infections among patients less than 21 years of age,11 and direct contact with such animals is not required for zoonotic transmission. In one study, 31% of reptile-associated salmonellosis cases occurred in children less than 5 years of age and 17% occurred in children aged 1 year or younger; these findings highlight the heightened risk in children and the potential for reptile-associated Salmonella to be transmitted without direct contact with the animal or its enclosure.12 Outbreaks of pet-associated salmonellosis involving hedgehogs, rodents, young poultry, frogs and turtles have recently been reported, in which children accounted for a high proportion of cases (35%-70%).23 In addition, various animal foods (e.g., raw meat, raw eggs and raw treats such as pig's ears) are commonly contaminated with Salmonella species. The feeding of these products are well-established risk factors for salmonellosis in pets, and associated human outbreaks have been identified.24,25
Summary
Clostridium difficile is a significant pathogen with over 300 000 cases reported in North America annually. Previously, it was thought that C. difficile was primarily a clinically associated ...infection. However, through the use of whole genome sequencing it has been revealed that the majority of cases are community acquired. The source of community‐acquired C. difficile infections (CDI) is open to debate with foodborne being one route considered. Clostridium difficile fits the criteria of a foodborne pathogen with respect to being commonly encountered in a diverse range of foods that includes meat, seafood and fresh produce. However, no foodborne illness outbreaks have been directly linked to C. difficile there is also no conclusive evidence that its spores can germinate in food matrices. This does not exclude food as a potential vehicle but it is likely that the pathogen is also acquired through zoonosis and the environment. The most significant factor that defines susceptibility to CDI is the host microbiome and functioning immune system. In this respect, effective control can be exercised by reducing the environmental burden of C. difficile along with boosting the host defences against the virulent enteric pathogen.
Clostridium difficile is a critically important cause of disease in humans, particularly in hospitalized individuals. Three major factors have raised concern about the potential for this pathogen to ...be a cause of foodborne disease: the increasing recognition of community-associated C. difficile infection, recent studies identifying C. difficile in food animals and food, and similarities in C. difficile isolates from animals, food and humans. It is clear that C. difficile can be commonly found in food animals and food in many regions, and that strains important in human infections, such as ribotype 027/NAP1/toxinotype III and ribotype 078/toxinotype V, are often present. However, it is currently unclear whether ingestion of contaminated food can result in colonization or infection. Many questions remain unanswered regarding the role of C. difficile in community-associated diarrhoea: its source when it is a food contaminant, the infective dose, and the association between ingestion of contaminated food and disease. The significant role of this pathogen in human disease and its potential emergence as an important community-associated pathogen indicate that careful evaluation of different sources of exposure, including food, is required, but determination of the potential role of food in C. difficile infection may be difficult.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a critically important human pathogen that is also an emerging concern in veterinary medicine and animal agriculture. It is present in a wide ...range of animal species, including dogs, cats, rabbits, horses, cattle, pigs, poultry, and exotic species, both as a cause of infection and in healthy carriers. Identification of MRSA in various species and in food has led to concerns about the roles of animals, both pets and livestock, in the epidemiology of MRSA infection and colonization in humans. There is evidence of the role of food animals in human MRSA infections in some countries and of pets as a possible source of human infection. Some groups of individuals who work closely with animals, such as veterinarians, have high MRSA colonization rates. This article includes discussions of MRSA in human medicine, animals, and food, as well as its interspecies transmission, colonization, infection, strains, and affected populations. However, clear answers are lacking in many of these areas and limited studies may lead to premature conclusions. It is certain that animals are a source of human MRSA infection in some circumstances-but humans may also serve as sources of infection in animals. Changes in the epidemiology of MRSA in one species may be reflected in changes in other species. The true scope of MRSA in animals and its impact on human health are still only superficially understood, but it is clear that MRSA is a potentially important veterinary and public health concern that requires a great deal more study to enhance understanding and effective response.
Our objectives were to describe and compare the uterine bacterial composition of postpartum Holstein cows diagnosed as healthy (n = 8), subclinical endometritis (SCE; n = 8), or clinical endometritis ...(CE; n = 5) in the fifth week postpartum. We did metagenomic analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences from endometrial cytobrush samples at 10, 21, and 35 days in milk (DIM), and endometrial bacterial culture at 35 DIM. Uterine bacterial composition in healthy, SCE, and CE was stable at 10, 21, and 35 DIM. Alpha and beta diversities showed a different uterine microbiome from CE compared to healthy or SCE, but no differences were found between healthy and SCE cows. At the phylum level, the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes and Fusobacteria, and at genera level, of Trueperella was greater in CE than healthy or SCE cows. Trueperella pyogenes was the predominant bacteria cultured in cows with CE, and a wide variety of bacterial growth was found in healthy and SCE cows. Bacteria that grew in culture were represented within the most abundant bacterial genera based on metagenomic sequencing. The uterine microbiota was similar between SCE and healthy, but the microbiome in cows with CE had a loss of bacterial diversity.
AIMS: To investigate the prevalence of Clostridium difficile encountered during sewage treatment and in water sources into which treated effluent was directly or indirectly discharged. METHODS AND ...RESULTS: Samples from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and rivers were collected and then enriched for Cl. difficile. Each of the isolates was subjected to toxinotyping and DNA typing using ribotyping, in addition to pulse‐field gel electrophoresis. Cl. difficile was isolated from 92% (108/117) of the raw sludge and 96% (106/110) of the anaerobic digested sludge samples from two Ontario WWTPs. The pathogen was recovered from 73% (43/59) of dewatered biosolids and effluent discharge, in addition to river sediments 39% (25/64). Ribotype 078 (commonly associated with Community Acquired infections) was recovered from raw sewage (19%; 21/108), digested sludge (8%; 8/106), biosolids (35%; 15/43) and river sediments (60%; 15/25). CONCLUSIONS: Clostridium difficile is commonly encountered in raw sewage and survives the wastewater treatment process. The pathogen can then be disseminated into the wider environment via effluent and land application of biosolids. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The study has illustrated the wide distribution of toxigenic Cl. difficile in WWTPs and river sediments although the clinical significance still requires to be elucidated.
Respiratory tract disease can be associated with primary or secondary bacterial infections in dogs and cats and is a common reason for use and potential misuse, improper use, and overuse of ...antimicrobials. There is a lack of comprehensive treatment guidelines such as those that are available for human medicine. Accordingly, the International Society for Companion Animal Infectious Diseases convened a Working Group of clinical microbiologists, pharmacologists, and internists to share experiences, examine scientific data, review clinical trials, and develop these guidelines to assist veterinarians in making antimicrobial treatment choices for use in the management of bacterial respiratory diseases in dogs and cats.
The epidemic of antimicrobial resistant infections continues to challenge, compromising animal care, complicating food animal production and posing zoonotic disease risks. While the overall role of ...therapeutic antimicrobial use in animals in the development AMR in animal and human pathogens is poorly defined, veterinarians must consider the impacts of antimicrobial use in animal and take steps to optimize antimicrobial use, so as to maximize the health benefits to animals while minimizing the likelihood of antimicrobial resistance and other adverse effects. This consensus statement aims to provide guidance on the therapeutic use of antimicrobials in animals, balancing the need for effective therapy with minimizing development of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria from animals and humans.
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