Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage is a devastating disease, accounting for 10 to 15% of all types of stroke; however, it is associated with disproportionally higher rates of mortality and ...disability. Despite significant progress in the acute management of these patients, the ideal surgical management is still to be determined. Surgical hematoma drainage has many theoretical benefits, such as the prevention of mass effect and cerebral herniation, reduction in intracranial pressure, and the decrease of excitotoxicity and neurotoxicity of blood products.Several surgical techniques have been considered, such as open craniotomy, decompressive craniectomy, neuroendoscopy, and minimally invasive catheter evacuation followed by thrombolysis. Open craniotomy is the most studied approach in this clinical scenario, the first randomized controlled trial dating from the early 1960s. Since then, a large number of studies have been published, which included two large, well-designed, well-powered, multicenter, multinational, randomized clinical trials. These studies, The International Surgical Trial in Intracerebral Hemorrhage (STICH), and the STICH II have shown no clinical benefit for early surgical evacuation of intraparenchymal hematoma in patients with spontaneous supratentorial hemorrhage when compared with best medical management plus delayed surgery if necessary. However, the results of STICH trials may not be generalizable, because of the high rates of patients' crossover from medical management to the surgical group. Without these high crossover percentages, the rates of unfavorable outcome and death with conservative management would have been higher. Additionally, comatose patients and patients at risk of cerebral herniation were not included. In these cases, surgery may be lifesaving, which prevented those patients of being enrolled in such trials. This article reviews the clinical evidence of surgical hematoma evacuation, and its role to decrease mortality and improve long-term functional outcome after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage.
Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a sub-type of hemorrhagic stroke associated with the highest rates of mortality and long-term neurological disabilities. Despite the improvement in the ...management of SAH patients and the reduction in case fatality in the last decades, disability and mortality remain high in this population. Brain injury can occur immediately and in the first days after SAH. This early brain injury can be due to physical effects on the brain such as increased intracranial pressure, herniations, intracerebral, intraventricular hemorrhage, and hydrocephalus. After the first 3 days, angiographic cerebral vasospasm (ACV) is a common neurological complication that in severe cases can lead to delayed cerebral ischemia and cerebral infarction. Consequently, the prevention and treatment of ACV continue to be a major goal. However, most treatments for ACV are vasodilators since ACV is due to arterial vasoconstriction. Other targets also have included those directed at the underlying biochemical mechanisms of brain injury such as inflammation and either independently or as a consequence, cerebral microthrombosis, cortical spreading ischemia, blood-brain barrier breakdown, and cerebral ischemia. Unfortunately, no pharmacologic treatment directed at these processes has yet shown efficacy in SAH. Enteral nimodipine and the endovascular treatment of the culprit aneurysm, remain the only treatment options supported by evidence from randomized clinical trials to improve patients' outcome. Currently, there is no intervention directly developed and approved to target neuroinflammation after SAH. The goal of this review is to provide an overview on anti-inflammatory drugs tested after aneurysmal SAH.
Aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage is a neurological syndrome with complex systemic complications. The rupture of an intracranial aneurysm leads to the acute extravasation of arterial blood under ...high pressure into the subarachnoid space and often into the brain parenchyma and ventricles. The haemorrhage triggers a cascade of complex events, which ultimately can result in early brain injury, delayed cerebral ischaemia, and systemic complications. Although patients with poor-grade subarachnoid haemorrhage (World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies 4 and 5) are at higher risk of early brain injury, delayed cerebral ischaemia, and systemic complications, the early and aggressive treatment of this patient population has decreased overall mortality from more than 50% to 35% in the last four decades. These management strategies include (1) transfer to a high-volume centre, (2) neurological and systemic support in a dedicated neurological intensive care unit, (3) early aneurysm repair, (4) use of multimodal neuromonitoring, (5) control of intracranial pressure and the optimisation of cerebral oxygen delivery, (6) prevention and treatment of medical complications, and (7) prevention, monitoring, and aggressive treatment of delayed cerebral ischaemia. The aim of this article is to provide a summary of critical care management strategies applied to the subarachnoid haemorrhage population, especially for patients in poor neurological condition, on the basis of the modern concepts of early brain injury and delayed cerebral ischaemia.
Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), defined as nontraumatic bleeding into the brain parenchyma, is the second most common subtype of stroke, with 5.3 million cases and over 3 million deaths ...reported worldwide in 2010. Case fatality is extremely high (reaching approximately 60 % at 1 year post event). Only 20 % of patients who survive are independent within 6 months. Factors such as chronic hypertension, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, and anticoagulation are commonly associated with ICH. Chronic arterial hypertension represents the major risk factor for bleeding. The incidence of hypertension-related ICH is decreasing in some regions due to improvements in the treatment of chronic hypertension. Anticoagulant-related ICH (vitamin K antagonists and the newer oral anticoagulant drugs) represents an increasing cause of ICH, currently accounting for more than 15 % of all cases. Although questions regarding the optimal medical and surgical management of ICH still remain, recent clinical trials examining hemostatic therapy, blood pressure control, and hematoma evacuation have advanced our understanding of ICH management. Timely and aggressive management in the acute phase may mitigate secondary brain injury. The initial management should include: initial medical stabilization; rapid, accurate neuroimaging to establish the diagnosis and elucidate an etiology; standardized neurologic assessment to determine baseline severity; prevention of hematoma expansion (blood pressure management and reversal of coagulopathy); consideration of early surgical intervention; and prevention of secondary brain injury. This review aims to provide a clinical approach for the practicing clinician.
OBJECTIVE Treatment of wide-necked intracranial aneurysms is associated with higher recanalization and complication rates; however, the most commonly used methods are not specifically designed to ...work in bifurcation lesions. To address these issues, the authors describe the evolution in the design and use of the eCLIPs (Endovascular Clip System) device, a novel hybrid stent-like assist device with flow diverter properties that was first described in 2008. METHODS A registry was established covering 13 international centers at which patients were treated with the second-generation eCLIPs device. Aneurysm morphology and rupture status, device neck coverage, coil retention, and procedural and late morbidity and mortality were recorded. For those patients who had undergone successful implantation more than 6 months earlier, the final imaging and clinical follow-up results and need for re-treatment were recorded. RESULTS Thirty-three patients were treated between June 2013 and September 2015. Twenty-five (76%) patients had successful placement of an eCLIPs device; 23 (92%) of these 25 patients had complete data. Eight cases of nondeployment occurred during the 1st year of use, consistent with a learning curve; no failures of deployment occurred thereafter. Two periprocedural transient ischemic attacks and 2 asymptomatic thrombotic events occurred. Twenty-one (91%) of 23 patients underwent follow-up at an average of 8 months (range 3-18 months); 9 (42.9%) of these 21 patients demonstrated an improvement in Raymond grade at follow-up; no cases of worsening Raymond grade were recorded, and 17 (81.0%) patients sustained a modified Raymond-Roy Classification class of I or II angiographic result at follow-up. Two delayed ruptures were recorded, both in previously coiled, symptomatic giant aneurysms where the device was used as a part of a salvage strategy. CONCLUSIONS The second-generation eCLIPs device is a viable treatment option for bifurcation aneurysms. The aneurysm occlusion rates in this initial clinical series are comparable to the initial experience with other bifurcation support devices.
Elevated catecholamine levels might be associated with unfavorable outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI). We investigated the association between catecholamine levels in the first 24 h ...post-trauma and functional outcome in patients with isolated moderate-to-severe TBI.
A cohort of 174 patients who sustained isolated blunt TBI was prospectively enrolled from three Level-1 Trauma Centers. Epinephrine (Epi) and norepinephrine (NE) concentrations were measured at admission (baseline), 6, 12 and 24 h post-injury. Outcome was assessed at 6 months by the extended Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOSE) score. Fractional polynomial plots and logistic regression models (fixed and random effects) were used to study the association between catecholamine levels and outcome. Effect size was reported as the odds ratio (OR) associated with one logarithmic change in catecholamine level.
At 6 months, 109 patients (62.6%) had an unfavorable outcome (GOSE 5-8 vs. 1-4), including 51 deaths (29.3%). Higher admission levels of Epi were associated with a higher risk of unfavorable outcome (OR, 2.04, 95% CI: 1.31-3.18, p = 0.002) and mortality (OR, 2.86, 95% CI: 1.62-5.01, p = 0.001). Higher admission levels of NE were associated with higher risk of unfavorable outcome (OR, 1.59, 95% CI: 1.07-2.35, p = 0.022) but not mortality (OR, 1.45, 95% CI: 0.98-2.17, p = 0.07). There was no relationship between the changes in Epi levels over time and mortality or unfavorable outcome. Changes in NE levels with time were statistically associated with a higher risk of mortality, but the changes had no relation to unfavorable outcome.
Elevated circulating catecholamines, especially Epi levels on hospital admission, are independently associated with functional outcome and mortality after isolated moderate-to-severe TBI.
OBJECTIVE Patients with poor-grade aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) (World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies Grade IV or V) are often considered for decompressive craniectomy (DC) as a ...rescue therapy for refractory intracranial hypertension. The authors performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the impact of DC on functional outcome and death in patients after poor-grade aSAH. METHODS A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Articles were identified through the Ovid Medline, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases from inception to October 2015. Only studies dedicated to patients with poor-grade aSAH were included. Primary outcomes were death and functional outcome assessed at any time period. Patients were grouped as having a favorable outcome (modified Rankin Scale mRS Scores 1-3, Glasgow Outcome Scale GOS Scores 4 and 5, extended Glasgow Outcome Scale GOSE Scores 5-8) or unfavorable outcome (mRS Scores 4-6, GOS Scores 1-3, GOSE Scores 1-4). Pooled estimates of event rates and odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals were calculated using the random-effects model. RESULTS Fifteen studies encompassing 407 patients were included in the meta-analysis (all observational cohorts). The pooled event rate for poor outcome across all studies was 61.2% (95% CI 52%-69%) and for death was 27.8% (95% CI 21%-35%) at a median of 12 months after aSAH. Primary (or early) DC resulted in a lower overall event rate for unfavorable outcome than secondary (or delayed) DC (47.5% 95% CI 31%-64% vs 74.4% 95% CI 43%-91%, respectively). Among studies with comparison groups, there was a trend toward a reduced mortality rate 1–3 months after discharge among patients who underwent DC (OR 0.58 95% CI 0.27–1.25; p = 0.168). However, this trend was not sustained at the 1-year follow-up (OR 1.09 95% CI 0.55-2.13; p = 0.79). CONCLUSIONS Results of this study summarize the best evidence available in the literature for DC in patients with poor-grade aSAH. DC is associated with high rates of unfavorable outcome and death. Because of the lack of robust control groups in a majority of the studies, the effect of DC on functional outcomes versus that of other interventions for refractory intracranial hypertension is still unknown. A randomized trial is needed.
Acute coagulopathy after traumatic brain injury (TBI) involves a complex multifactorial hemostatic response that is poorly characterized.
To examine early posttraumatic alterations in ...coagulofibrinolytic, endothelial, and inflammatory blood biomarkers in relation to sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation and 6-month patient outcomes, using multivariate partial least-squares (PLS) analysis.
A multicenter observational study of 159 adult isolated TBI patients admitted to the emergency department at an urban level I trauma center, was performed. Plasma concentrations of 6 coagulofibrinolytic, 10 vascular endothelial, 19 inflammatory, and 2 catecholamine biomarkers were measured by immunoassay on admission and 24 h postinjury. Neurological outcome at 6 months was assessed using the Extended Glasgow Outcome Scale. PLS-discriminant analysis was used to identify salient biomarker contributions to unfavorable outcome, whereas PLS regression analysis was used to evaluate the covariance between SNS correlates (catecholamines) and biomarkers of coagulopathy, endotheliopathy, and inflammation.
Biomarker profiles in patients with an unfavorable outcome displayed procoagulation, hyperfibrinolysis, glycocalyx and endothelial damage, vasculature activation, and inflammation. A strong covariant relationship was evident between catecholamines and biomarkers of coagulopathy, endotheliopathy, and inflammation at both admission and 24 h postinjury.
Biomarkers of coagulopathy and endotheliopathy are associated with poor outcome after TBI. Catecholamine levels were highly correlated with endotheliopathy and coagulopathy markers within the first 24 h after injury. Further research is warranted to characterize the pathogenic role of SNS-mediated hemostatic alterations in isolated TBI.
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