Several emerging battery technologies are currently on endeavour to take a share of the dominant position taken by Li-ion batteries in the field of energy storage. Among them, sodium-based batteries ...offer a combination of attractive properties i.e., low cost, sustainable precursors and secure raw material supplies. Na-based batteries include related battery concepts, such as Na-ion, all solid-state Na batteries, Na/O2 and Na/S, that differ in key components and in redox chemistry, and therefore result in separate challenges and metrics. Na-ion batteries represent an attractive solution which is almost ready to challenge Li-ion technology in certain applications; the other cell concepts represent a more disruptive innovation, with a higher performance gain, provided that major hurdles are overcome. The present review aims at highlighting the most promising materials in the field of Na-based batteries and challenges needed to be addressed to make this technology industrially appealing, by providing an in-depth analysis of performance metrics from recent literature. To this end, half-cell reported metrics have been extrapolated to full cell level for the more mature Na-ion technology to provide a fair comparison with existing technologies.
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•Assessment of Na-based battery technology: from materials to cell development.•Realistic comparison of key performance indicators for Na-ion and Li-ion cells.•Na-ion batteries can be considered as complementary alternatives to Li-ion batteries.•Fundamental research is the key enabler for future development of the Na-based technology.
NASICON‐type sodium vanadium phosphate (Na3V2(PO4)3, or NVP) cathode materials have great potential for fast charging and long cycling sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs) similar to lithium iron phosphate ...(LiFePO4, or LFP) cathode materials used in lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs). However, the cycle life and energy density in the full cell using NVP materials need to be significantly improved. This paper investigates the degradation mechanisms of NVP‐based SIBs and identifies the Na loss from the cathode to the anode solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) reactions as the main cause of capacity degradation. A new Na‐rich NVP cathode (e.g., Na4V2(PO4)3, or Na4VP) is developed to address the Na loss problem. Conventional NVP can be easily transformed into the Na4VP by a facile and fast chemical solution treatment (30 s). Na‐free‐anode Na4VP and hard carbon‐Na4VP full cells are assembled to evaluate the electrochemical properties of the Na‐rich NVP cathode. The Na4VP cathode provides excess Na to compensate for the Na loss, resulting much longer cycle life in the full cells (>400 cycles) and a high specific energy and power density. Good low‐temperature performance is also observed.
A new Na‐rich sodium vanadium phosphate cathode (e.g., Na3V2(PO4)3, or Na4VP) is developed to address the Na loss problem that commonly affects sodium‐ion batteries based on these electrodes. The Na4VP cathode provides excess Na to compensate for the Na loss, resulting much longer cycle life in the full cells (>400 cycles) and a high specific energy and power density.
The growing demand for cost‐efficiency and safe energy storage systems has stimulated enormous interest worldwide in advanced cathodes for practicle “beyond‐Li‐ion” batteries. Herein, a feasible ...electrospinning/annealing avenue for the construction of 1D Mo‐doped Na3V2(PO4)3 nanowires in situ coated with carbon nanoshell (MNVP@C NWs) toward next‐generation Na‐ion batteries (NIBs) and hybrid Li/Na‐ion batteries (HLNIBs) as a high‐rate cathode material, is reported. Particularly, the intrinsic hybrid Li/Na‐ion storage mechanism of the MNVP@C NWs is unveiled for the HLNIBs with comprehensive characterizations. The resultant MNVP@C NWs demonstrate rapid electronic/ionic transport and rigid structural tolerance within operating temperatures from ‐25 to 55 °C, benefiting from its unique structural/compositional merits. More competitively, the MNVP@C NWs assembled pouch‐type NIBs (‐15 to 25 °C) and HLNIBs (‐25 to 55 °C) both exhibit remarkable wide‐temperature‐tolerance electrochemical properties in terms of high‐rate capabilities and long‐duration cycling lifespan, along with material‐level energy densities of ≈262.4 and ≈186.1 Wh kg‐1 at 25 °C, respectively. The contribution here is expected to exert a stimulative impact upon the future design of versatile cathodes for advanced high energy/power rechargeable batteries.
Mo‐doped Na3V2(PO4)3@C nanowires are constructed, and exhibit high‐rate capacities and long‐duration life. The hybrid Li+/Na+ storage mechanism is elucidated which enables wide‐temperature‐tolerance Na‐ion batteries and hybrid Li/Na‐ion batteries as competitive cathodes.
How can small cities make an impact in a globalizing world dominated by ‘world cities’ and urban development strategies aimed at increasing agglomeration? This book addresses the challenges of ...smaller cities trying to put themselves on the map, attract resources and initiate development. Placemaking has become an important tool for driving urban development that is sensitive to the needs of communities. This volume examines the development of creative placemaking practices that can help to link small cities to external networks, stimulate collaboration and help them make the most of the opportunities presented by the knowledge economy. The authors argue that the adoption of more strategic, holistic placemaking strategies that engage all stakeholders can be a successful alternative to copying bigger places. Drawing on a range of examples from around the world, they analyse small city development strategies and identify key success factors. This book focuses on the case of ‘s-Hertogenbosch, a small Dutch city that used cultural programming to link itself to global networks and stimulate economic, cultural, social and creative development. It advocates the use of cultural programming strategies as a more flexible alternative to traditional top-down planning approaches and as a means of avoiding copying the big city. The Open Access version of this book, available at http://www.taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives (CC-BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license.
The metal anode is the pivotal component for advanced sodium‐metal batteries such as Na–O2 batteries. Designing a 3D confinement scaffold is a promising strategy for constructing dendrite‐free ...sodium‐metal anodes; however, cycling stability at a large current density (>10 mA cm−2) is still difficult to realize. Herein, the design of new lightweight and fibrous hydroxylated Ti3C2 (h‐Ti3C2) MXene based scaffolds with stepped sodiophilic gradient structure (h‐M‐SSG) is reported, and its thickness can be controlled (80−250 µm). The sodiophilic gradient structure (adjusted by h‐Ti3C2) can effectively induce sodium ions to preferentially deposit at the bottom of the scaffold, thus inhibiting dendrite growth. h‐M‐SSG/Na‐based symmetrical batteries exhibit a low polarization voltage and long cycling life at a high current density (40 mA cm−2) and a high cut‐off capacity (40 mAh cm−2). Moreover, a Na–O2 battery with an h‐M‐SSG/Na anode exhibits a low potential gap of 0.137 V after 45 cycles at 1000 mA g−1 and 1000 mAh g−1. This deposition‐regulation strategy would inspire the design of 3D scaffolds for high‐performance sodium‐metal‐anode‐based batteries.
A deposition‐regulation strategy for Na scaffold is reported to induce sodium ions to preferentially deposit at the bottom of anode. The sodiophilic gradient structure of the new lightweight and fibrous hydroxylated Ti3C2‐MXene‐based scaffold significantly improves the affordability for high current density and areal capacity during the charging/discharging process of a Na−O2 battery.
Soil salinity decreases the growth rate of plants and can severely limit the productivity of crop plants. The ability to tolerate salinity stress differs widely between species of plants as well as ...within species. As an important component of salinity tolerance, a better understanding of the mechanisms of Na⁺ transport will assist in the development of plants with improved salinity tolerance and, importantly, might lead to increased yields from crop plants growing in challenging environments. This review summarizes the current understanding of the components of Na⁺ transport in glycophytic plants, including those at the soil to root interface, transport of Na⁺ to the xylem, control of Na⁺ loading in the stele and partitioning of the accumulated Na⁺ within the shoot and individual cells. Using this knowledge, strategies to modify Na⁺ transport and engineer plant salinity tolerance, as well as areas of research which merit particular attention in order to further improve the understanding of salinity tolerance in plants, are discussed.
Over the last decade, Na‐ion batteries have been extensively studied as low‐cost alternatives to Li‐ion batteries for large‐scale grid storage applications; however, the development of high‐energy ...positive electrodes remains a major challenge. Materials with a polyanionic framework, such as Na superionic conductor (NASICON)‐structured cathodes with formula NaxM2(PO4)3, have attracted considerable attention because of their stable 3D crystal structure and high operating potential. Herein, a novel NASICON‐type compound, Na4MnCr(PO4)3, is reported as a promising cathode material for Na‐ion batteries that deliver a high specific capacity of 130 mAh g−1 during discharge utilizing high‐voltage Mn2+/3+ (3.5 V), Mn3+/4+ (4.0 V), and Cr3+/4+ (4.35 V) transition metal redox. In addition, Na4MnCr(PO4)3 exhibits a high rate capability (97 mAh g−1 at 5 C) and excellent all‐temperature performance. In situ X‐ray diffraction and synchrotron X‐ray diffraction analyses reveal reversible structural evolution for both charge and discharge.
A new Na superionic conductor (NASICON)‐type Na4MnCr(PO4)3 is synthesized and evaluated as a cathode material for Na‐ion batteries. It delivers 130 mAh g−1 discharge capacity utilizing Mn2+/4+ and Cr3+/4+ redox. Unlike known NASICONs, one more Na extraction is achieved at the high‐voltage end. X‐ray absorption and diffraction studies are performed to reveal the redox mechanism and structural evolution in detail.
To improve the energy and power density of Na‐ion batteries, an increasing number of researchers have focused their attention on activation of the anionic redox process. Although several materials ...have been proposed, few studies have focused on the Na‐rich materials compared with Li‐rich materials. A key aspect is sufficient utilization of anionic species. Herein, a comprehensive study of Mn‐based Na1.2Mn0.4Ir0.4O2 (NMI) O3‐type Na‐rich materials is presented, which involves both cationic and anionic contributions during the redox process. The single‐cation redox step relies on the Mn3+/Mn4+, whereas Ir atoms build a strong covalent bond with O and effectively suppress the O2 release. In situ Raman, ex situ X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and soft‐X‐ray absorption spectroscopy are employed to unequivocally confirm the reversibility of O22− species formation and suggest a high degree of anionic reaction in this NMI Na‐rich material. In operando X‐ray diffraction study discloses the asymmetric structure evolution between the initial and subsequent cycles, which also explains the effect of the charge compensation mechanism on the electrochemical performance. The research provides a novel insight on Na‐rich materials and a new perspective in materials design towards future applications.
Mn‐based Na1.2Mn0.4Ir0.4O2 O3 type Na‐rich material is synthesized, which involves both cationic and anionic contribution during the redox process. The single‐cation redox relies on the Mn3+/Mn4+, whereas Ir atoms effectively suppress the O2 release. The O22− species is unequivocally confirmed upon cycling, suggesting a high contribution degree of anionic reaction in the Na‐rich material.
Hard carbon has long been considered the leading candidate for anode materials of Na‐ion batteries. Intensive research efforts have been carried out in the search of suitable carbon structure for an ...improved storage capability. Herein, an anode based on multishelled hollow carbon nanospheres, which are able to deliver an outstanding electrochemical performance with an extraordinary reversible capacity of 360 mAh g−1 at 30 mA g−1, is designed. An interesting dependence of the electrochemical properties on the multishelled structural features is identified: with an increase in the shell number of the model carbon materials, the sloping capacity in the charge/discharge curve remains almost unchanged while the plateau capacity continuously increases, suggesting an adsorption‐filling Na‐storage mechanism for the multishelled hollow hard carbon materials. The findings not only provide new perspective in the structural design of high‐performance anode materials, but also shed light on the complicated mechanism behind Na‐storage by hard carbon.
A high‐performance Na‐ion battery anode is developed via structural engineering of hard carbon into multishelled hollow carbon nanospheres (MS‐HCNs). The MS‐HCNs not only promise extraordinary capacities, but also provide an effective model for the mechanistic study of Na‐storage. The plateau capacities can be tuned independently by controlling the structure of the anodes, providing a directed proof for an adsorption‐filling Na‐storage mechanism.
A superior piezoelectric coefficient (d33 = 570 ± 10 pC N”1), the highest value reported to date in potassium‐sodium niobate‐based ceramics, is obtained in (1−x−y)K1−w Naw Nb1−zSbzO3−yBaZrO3−x − ...Bi0.5K0.5HfO3 ceramics. This high d33 value can be ascribed to the co‐existence of “nano‐scale strain domains” (1–2 nm) and a high density of ferroelectric domain boundaries. Therefore, ternary KNN‐based ceramics demonstrate the potential for applications.
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