•Over 70% of injuries to bus passengers were resulted from non-collision incidents in Hong Kong.•Inconsistences were found between severity models of non-collision injuries and collision ...injuries.•Ignoring unobserved heterogeneity resulted in biased estimations.•A 3A strategy was proposed to mitigate non-collision injuries to bus passengers.
Introduction: Although public buses have been demonstrated as a relatively safe mode of transport, the number of injuries to public bus passengers is far from negligible. Existing studies of public bus safety have focused primarily on injuries caused by collisions. Surprisingly, limited effort has been devoted to identifying factors that increase the severity of passenger injuries in non-collision incidents. Method: Our study therefore investigated the injury risk of public bus passengers involved in collision incidents and non-collision incidents comparatively, based on a police-reported dataset of 17,383 passengers injured on franchised public buses over a 10-year period in Hong Kong. A random parameters logistic model was established to estimate the likelihood of fatal and severe injuries to passengers as a function of various factors. Results: Our results indicated substantial inconsistences in the effects of risk factors between models of non-collision injuries and collision injuries. The severity of passenger injuries tended to increase significantly when non-collision incidents occurred due to excessive speed of bus drivers, on double-decker buses, in less urbanized areas, in winter, in heavy rains, during daytime, and at night without street lighting. Elderly female passengers were also found more likely to be fatally or severely injured in non-collision incidents if they lost their balance while boarding, alighting from, or standing on a bus. In comparison, the following factors were associated with a greater likelihood of fatal or severe injuries in collision incidents: elderly female passengers, standing passengers who lost balance, buses out of driver control, double-decker buses, collisions with vehicles or objects, and less urbanized areas. Practical Applications: Based on our comparative analysis, more targeted countermeasures, namely “4E” (engineering, enforcement, emergency, and education) and “3A” (awareness, appreciation, and assistance), were recommended to mitigate collision injuries and non-collision injuries to public bus passengers, respectively.
•Bus passenger safety should be prioritised when operating a bus service.•Applying a safety-driven acceleration limit would reduce non-collision injuries.•Applying an acceleration limit of 1.0 m/s2 ...would affect bus service operations.•At most, bus journey time could increase by 6 min and passenger waiting time by 1.7 min.•Changes will mainly affect users travelling the bus route from beginning to end.
Buses are a form of active transportation and can improve people's well-being. However, their high level of acceleration can make them less attractive to users. Even worse, they can be responsible for severe injuries that require hospitalisation or for the development of fear of falling, particularly experienced by older people. Evidence has shown that, bus acceleration up to 1.0 m/s2 enables passengers to move in a natural way inside the moving vehicle, hence reducing instability and increasing safety. Although operators might be willing to implement such an intervention, they might also be skeptical about its impact on the operation of a service, such as timetabling, travel times, waiting times, etc.
The effect of a safety-driven acceleration limit on the operational characteristics of a round trip of a bus service in London is investigated by this study. Data regarding speed, acceleration and journey time were extracted from the engine of a bus and recorded at 2 Hz. Further computations estimated the passenger waiting times and headways between the examined bus and its preceding and following buses. A vehicle movement model was used to test how these operational characteristics would be affected if the acceleration limit of 1.0 m/s2 were to be implemented. The results suggest that the journey time of the proposed accessible service would be 6 min longer than the current service and passenger waiting time would increase by 2 min. One additional bus would be required to serve the same number of passengers. A discussion of the results is provided.
Migration of people from rural to urban areas has led to the increase in demand for transportation services in the cities. However, authorities have failed to cope with this problem in a consistently ...manner. This has led to the increase in non-collision injuries among commuters. This study aimed at investigating the prevalence and risk factors for non-collision injuries among commuters using public transport in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
A cross sectional study was conducted in Dar es Salaam involving 290 commuters from 7 bus routes travelling to and from the city centre using public transport which are privately owned and commonly known as "daladala". Stratified random sampling was used to sample buses based on the passenger carrying capacity (i.e. 15-24, 25-34 and 35-45 passengers). Systematic random sampling was used to get a total of three commuters from each bus for the interview.
Lifetime prevalence of non-collision injuries was 71%, while these rates were 70 and 39% in the last 12 and 6 months, respectively. Commuters aged between 18 and 28 years experienced non-collision injuries the most (56%) in the last 12 months. Most non-collision injuries occurred on weekdays in the evening from 5:00 pm to 10:00 pm. Strong association was observed between the occurrence of non-collision injuries and commuting time between 5:00 pm to 10:00 pm (adjusted OR = 9.24; 95% CI: 2.68-19.54); boarding and disembarking (adjusted OR = 9.21; 95% CI: 3.77-25.11) and scrambling during boarding (adjusted OR = 5.03; 95% CI: 2.51-21.32). The lower limbs (adjusted OR = 8.64; 95% CI: 2.72-21.76) and the upper limbs (adjusted OR = 13.55; 95% CI: 5.32-33.21) were the most affected body parts.
This study has demonstrated high prevalence of non-collision injuries among commuters using public transport in Dar es Salaam. Travelling in the evening between 5:00 pm to 10:00 pm on the weekdays, boarding and disembarking especially when scrambling for the bus during boarding, overcrowding in the bus especially when the bus is already full with no seats available are the major risk factors for non-collision injuries.
•Bus acceleration and passenger age and gender influence passenger stability.•The bus staircase design significantly affects people’s ability to control balance.•Male passengers require longer DST to ...compensate for their lost balance.•Male middle-aged passengers present higher difficulty in controlling balance.•Bus acceleration of 1.0 m/s2 will reduce the number of falls aboard buses.
In a previous work of the authors, the impact of acceleration on people’s walking on the lower deck of a bus was examined. The importance of investigating the impact of bus acceleration when people are walking on the bus staircase is also recognised. As many falls occur on steps or stairs, especially during stair descending, eliminating non-collision bus injuries will attract more people to active means of transportation and will contribute towards healthier societies.
Twenty-nine healthy and regular bus users (20–80 yrs.), took part in this study. Their natural gait on a static staircase was monitored in a laboratory and was compared to their gait on the staircase of a moving double-decker bus. When the bus was in motion, the most common movements aboard buses were studied: stair ascending during bus acceleration and stair descending during bus deceleration. The examined acceleration levels (low - 1.0 m/s2, medium - 1.5 m/s2, high - 2.5 m/s2) were set in the range of accelerations experienced by passengers on the real bus service in London.
ANOVA tests were conducted considering the changes in double support time (DST, gait event indicative of balance) between tasks and levels of acceleration. Participants’ age and gender were also variables informative of the significance of the differences in DST. The results revealed that passengers start their journeys with an inherent disadvantage due to the bus staircase design, which worsens their ability to maintain balance as acceleration increases. To eliminate falls aboard buses, the current acceleration level should be decreased and the appropriate level is discussed in the paper.
•Bus passenger balance measured for the first time in the real environment.•The design of the lower deck of the bus does not affect passenger balance.•On the bus, higher acceleration levels force all ...but older and female passengers to reduce double support time.•Passengers’ ability to control balance reduces with the increase of acceleration.•Middle-aged of both genders and men present more difficulties in controlling their balance in all cases.
Travelling by bus is a way millions of people choose for their everyday activities. However, the large acceleration levels, and therefore the associated increased number of falls and non-collision injuries, force current users to shift to other modes of transport, with cars still remaining the preferred choice.
This study investigates whether there is a possibility to improve the safety and comfort of buses, where all passengers can walk naturally inside a moving bus. Twenty-nine regular bus users, between 20 and 80 years old, were invited to participate in a series of experiments. Their natural gait whilst walking on a flat surface was monitored in a static laboratory and was compared to their gait whilst walking on the lower deck of a moving bus. The examined acceleration levels (low – 1.0 m/s2, medium – 1.5 m/s2, high – 2.5 m/s2) were set in the range of accelerations experienced by passengers on the real bus service in London.
An ANOVA test was conducted on measures of changes in gait (double support time) as a measure of balance, taking into account passengers’ age and gender as well as the acceleration of the bus. The results revealed that, although the dimensions of the lower deck of the bus are narrow, passengers are still able to move to the back of the stationary bus whilst sustaining their natural balance. However, their ability to control balance reduces with the increase of acceleration.
•Passenger body balance is significantly affected by the bus design.•Below 1.0 m/s2, passenger upper body balancing mechanisms are closer to natural.•Above 1.5 m/s2, passengers adopt extreme ...mechanisms to sustain their balance.•Middle-aged males present worse body balance compared to older.•Stair ascending is the most challenging task aboard for upper body engagement.
Whilst buses can improve societal well-being, they can also contribute to increasing car ownership due to their abrupt movements. High acceleration can be responsible for passenger injuries that require hospitalisation and for the development of fear of falling in the elderly, which turn people away from buses. Hence, to promote buses as a form of active transportation, passenger safety needs to be considered in public transport planning.
The walking pattern and grip force behaviour of 29 healthy and regular bus users, between 20 and 80 years, was studied with the aim to increase passenger safety aboard buses. Lower body balancing mechanisms were previously published. This work reports on the balancing mechanisms the same participants developed to engage their upper body when subjected to the same acceleration levels (stationary: 0 m/s2; low: 1.0 m/s2; medium: 1.5 m/s2; high: 2.5 m/s2), and whilst performing level and stair walking tasks. Their natural grip force and weight was also considered.
ANOVA tests on the collected peak grip forces and grip durations revealed that age, gender, task and acceleration are significant factors in the development of upper body balancing mechanisms. Peak grip force and duration intensify, and become less variable, as acceleration increases, especially during stair ascending. Middle-aged males present higher instability compared to other passengers, as they apply higher grip forces and sustain their grip for longer durations. As the upper and lower body work in synergy to sustain balance, conclusions on an overall acceleration level are being drawn to increase bus passenger safety.
The main aim of this study is to analyze the effect of bus grab handle designs on muscle activations and fatigue for bus travellers to avoid non-collision injuries through electromyography signals ...and subjective analysis. Four different bus grab handles are designed ergonomically by considering the anthropometry and anatomy of the hand. The best design is evaluated based on the muscle activation in the dominant and shoulder muscle using surface Electromyography (EMG) sensors, then results are compared with the traditional grab handle. The results revealed that the bicep brachii and trapezius muscles are engaged more (17%) in traditional design than in the proposed design. Model C and Model D are rated as the most comfortable bus grab handle designs in a subjective analysis carried out using CR-Borg RPE methods. Providing more palm contact regions for gripping, handle shape, and guide for fingers has a positive impact on reduced muscle activation and subjective preference. This study can be useful for the person engaging in designing the bus grab handle for public transportation in the future.
Due to the rapid growth of metropolises and the insufficiency of public transportation, nowadays, many people travel on these vehicles in a standing position. This position leads to discomfort and ...the risk of falling or non-collision incidents for the passengers.
The present study was conducted to analyze an innovative sit-standing seat to prevent falls and non-collision injuries in standing passengers.
A total of sixteen participated in this study. EMG signal and Borg scale were used to assess muscle activity and discomfort, respectively.
The mean Borg scale score for perceived discomfort was lower in the sit-standing position than the standing position in all body organs, except for the hips. Also, in the sit-standing position, the muscle activity of the soleus and medial gastrocnemius muscles was significantly lower in the constant velocity and entire phases in both legs, lower in the right leg in the acceleration phase and lower in the left leg in the deceleration phase.
So this seat can be used as an innovative idea to improve the ergonomic condition of standing passengers to prevent falls and non-collision injuries on transit buses.
To compare the stewardship of road traffic accidents (RTIs) prevention in three pioneer countries and three similar ones to Iran.
In this descriptive comparative study, the United States of America, ...Sweden, and Brazil as the pioneer countries in RTIs prevention were compared to the India, Pakistan, and Turkey as the countries socioeconomically similar to Iran. Embase, PubMed, Scopus, IranDoc, IranMedex, SID, and MagIran were searched. Also a hand search conducted on websites and search engines using related keywords.
In the pioneer countries in RTIs prevention there was a delegation to a particular organization. In the other three countries a part of the Ministry of Transportation had the overall responsibility of RTIs. In Iran there was uncertainty in the stewardship of RTIs prevention. There was little evidence on the role and activities of health systems in RTIs prevention.
It seems necessary to define a lead agency organization on RTIs prevention in Iran with sufficient authority and resources. This study also recommends conducting reliable studies to investigate the possible roles that the health system of a country can assume regarding the RTIs prevention.
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