Nations of the world have committed to a number of goals and targets to address global environmental challenges. Protected areas have for centuries been a key strategy in conservation and play a ...major role in addressing current challenges. The most important tool used to track progress on protected‐area commitments is the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). Periodic assessments of the world's protected‐area estate show steady growth over the last 2 decades. However, the current method, which uses the latest version of the WDPA, does not show the true dynamic nature of protected areas over time and does not provide information on sites removed from the WDPA. In reality, this method can only show growth or remain stable. We used GIS tools in an approach to assess protected‐area change over time based on 12 temporally distinct versions of the WDPA that quantify area added and removed from the WDPA annually from 2004 to 2016. Both the narrative of continual growth of protected area and the counter‐narrative of protected area removal were overly simplistic. The former because growth was almost entirely in the marine realm and the latter because some areas removed were reprotected in later years. On average 2.5 million km2 was added to the WDPA annually and 1.1 million km2 was removed. Reasons for the inclusion and removal of protected areas in the WDPA database were in part due to data‐quality issues but also to on‐the‐ground changes. To meet the 17% protected‐area component of Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 by 2020, which stood at 14.7% in 2016, either the rate of protected‐area removal must decrease or the rate of protected‐area designation and addition to the WDPA must increase.
Dinámica de los Bienes de las Áreas Protegidas desde 2004
Resumen
Países alrededor del mundo se han comprometido con un número de metas y objetivos para tratar los retos ambientales mundiales. Las áreas protegidas han funcionado durante siglos como una estrategia clave en la conservación y juegan un papel importante en cómo se manejan los retos actuales. La herramienta más importante que se usa para rastrear el progreso de los compromisos con las áreas protegidas es la Base de Datos Mundial de las Áreas Protegidas (WDPA, en inglés). Las evaluaciones periódicas de los bienes de las áreas protegidas muestran un crecimiento constante durante las últimas dos décadas. Sin embargo, el método actual, que usa la versión más reciente de la WDPA, no muestra la verdadera naturaleza dinámica de las áreas protegidas a lo largo del tiempo y no proporciona información sobre sitios que han sido removidos de la WDPA. En realidad este método sólo puede mostrar crecimiento o permanecer estable. Usamos herramientas de SIG en una estrategia para evaluar el cambio de las áreas protegidas a lo largo del tiempo con base en doce versiones temporalmente distintas de la WDPA que cuantifican las áreas añadidas o removidas de la WDPA anualmente desde 2004 hasta 2016. Tanto la narrativa del crecimiento continuo de un área protegida como la contra‐narrativa de la eliminación de un área protegida fueron exageradamente simplistas. La primera se debe a que el crecimiento ocurrió casi en su mayoría en el dominio marino y la segunda a que algunas áreas eliminadas fueron reprotegidas años después. En promedio se añadieron 2.5 millones de km2 a la WDPA anualmente y 1.1 millones de km2 fueron removidos. Las razones para la inclusión y la eliminación de las áreas protegidas de la base de datos de la WDPA se debieron en parte a temas de calidad de datos pero también a cambios hechos sobre la marcha. Para lograr el 17% del componente de áreas protegidas del Objetivo 11 de Biodiversidad de Aichi para el 2020, el cual se encontraba al 14.7% en 2016, se debe disminuir la tasa de eliminación de áreas protegidas o se debe incrementar la tasa de designación y suma de áreas protegidas a la WDPA.
摘要
世界各国都在致力于实现一系列目标以应对全球环境变化的挑战。几个世纪以来, 保护区一直是实施保护的重要策略, 在应对目前的挑战中也起到重要作用。要追踪对保护区建设实施的进展, 最重要的工具就是世界保护区数据库 (World Database on Protected Areas, WDPA) 。对全球保护区的周期性评估显示, 过去二十年来受保护的区域在稳定增加。然而,目前使用最新版本 WDPA 数据库的方法并不能体现保护区随时间变化的真实动态, 也不能提供那些从 WDPA 中去除的位点的信息。事实上, 这个方法只能显示增长或保持稳定的动态。我们用 GIS 工具, 根据 12 个不同时期的 WDPA 版本评估了保护区随时间的变化, 这一方法定量了 2004 年到 2016 年 WDPA 每年新增和去除的地区。保护区的持续增加和保护区的去除的描述都过于简单化。前者是因为增加的地区几乎都是海洋, 后者则是因为一些被去除的地区随后几年又重新得到了保护。 WDPA 中保护区平均每年增加 250 万平方公里, 去除 110 万平方公里。 WDPA 数据库中保护区新增和去除的原因有的是数据质量问题, 有的则是发生了真实的变化。为了在 2020 年达到爱知生物多样性目标 11 中保护区覆盖 17% 的目标 (2016 年为 14.7%), 必须降低保护区被去除的速率, 或增加划定保护区并加入 WDPA 数据库的速率。【翻译:胡怡思;审校:聂永刚】
Article impact statement: To meet Aichi target 11, the world needs to reduce the rate of protected‐area removal or increase the rate of protected‐area designation.
Protected areas not allowing extractive activities (here called fully protected area) are a spatially explicit conservation management tool commonly used to ensure populations persistence. This is ...achieved when an adequate fraction of a species' population spends most of its time within the boundaries of the protected area. Within a marine context, home ranges represent a tractable metric to provide guidance and evaluation of fully protected areas. We compiled peer-reviewed literature specific to the home ranges of finfishes and invertebrates of ecological and/or commercial importance in the Mediterranean Sea, and related this to the size of 184 Mediterranean fully protected areas. We also investigated the influence of fully protected areas size on fish density in contrast to fished areas with respect to home ranges. Home range estimations were available for 11 species (10 fishes and 1 lobster). The European spiny lobster Palinurus elephas had the smallest home range (0.0039 ± 0.0014 km2; mean ± 1 SE), while the painted comber Serranus scriba (1.1075 ± 0.2040 km2) had the largest. Approximately 25% of Mediterranean fully protected areas are larger than 2 times the size of the largest home range recorded. Fish densities were significantly higher when fully protected areas were larger than the home range, while no change in density occurred when home ranges were larger than fully protected areas. These results display a direct link between the effectiveness of fully protected areas and species' home range, suggesting that fully protected areas of at least 3.6 km2 may increase the density of local populations of these coastal marine species.
•European spiny lobster had the smallest home range, painted comber had the largest.•Fish density was higher in protected areas larger than the species' home ranges.•No-take zones of at least 3.6 km2 can increase density of local populations.•Network of no-take zones covering ≥1.7% of coastal areas could benefits species.
The overexploitation of many marine resources and ecosystems calls for the development and implementation of measures to support their recovery and conservation.
The potential contributions to ...support fisheries and ecosystem recovery were assessed at the local level of the three multiple‐use marine protected areas (MPAs) of Cerbère‐Banyuls, Medes Islands, and Cap de Creus, located in the north‐western Mediterranean Sea.
For each MPA, a food‐web model accounting for each protection level (PL) was developed: the fully protected area (FPA), the partially protected area (PPA) and the unprotected area (UPA) surrounding the MPA. Using the resulting nine food‐web models, the ecosystem structure and functioning of each PL were compared and characterized, differences and similarities within and among the three MPAs were assessed, and ecosystem response to full protection was evaluated for the three MPAs.
Differences in terms of ecosystem structure and functioning were found among PLs. Overall, FPAs presented the most positive effect of protection in terms of ecosystem structure and functioning, followed by PPAs. However, the effects of protection on neighbouring UPAs were hardly noticeable.
Similarities between Cerbère‐Banyuls and Medes Islands MPAs were observed, while Cap de Creus MPA showed the least benefits from protection overall. These results are likely to be due to similarities in the configuration of the protected areas, the levels of enforcement and compliance, and the impact of recreational and small‐scale fisheries allowed in the PPAs and UPAs.
This study illustrates that well‐enforced Mediterranean MPAs, even when small, can yield local positive impacts on the structure and functioning of marine ecosystems that can contribute to support local fisheries.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a primary tool for the stewardship, conservation, and restoration of marine ecosystems, yet 69% of global MPAs are only partially protected (i.e., are open to some ...form of fishing). Although fully protected areas have well‐documented outcomes, including increased fish diversity and biomass, the effectiveness of partially protected areas is contested. Partially protected areas may provide benefits in some contexts and may be warranted for social reasons, yet social outcomes often depend on MPAs achieving their ecological goals to distinguish them from open areas and justify the cost of protection. We assessed the social perceptions and ecological effectiveness of 18 partially protected areas and 19 fully protected areas compared with 19 open areas along 7000 km of coast of southern Australia. We used mixed methods, gathering data via semistructured interviews, site surveys, and Reef Life (underwater visual census) surveys. We analyzed qualitative data in accordance with grounded theory and quantitative data with multivariate and univariate linear mixed‐effects models. We found no social or ecological benefits for partially protected areas relative to open areas in our study. Partially protected areas had no more fish, invertebrates, or algae than open areas; were poorly understood by coastal users; were not more attractive than open areas; and were not perceived to have better marine life than open areas. These findings provide an important counterpoint to some large‐scale meta‐analyses that conclude partially protected areas can be ecologically effective but that draw this conclusion based on narrower measures. We argue that partially protected areas act as red herrings in marine conservation because they create an illusion of protection and consume scarce conservation resources yet provide little or no social or ecological gain over open areas. Fully protected areas, by contrast, have more fish species and biomass and are well understood, supported, and valued by the public. They are perceived to have better marine life and be improving over time in keeping with actual ecological results. Conservation outcomes can be improved by upgrading partially protected areas to higher levels of protection including conversion to fully protected areas.
Análisis de la Efectividad Social y Ecológica de las Áreas Marinas Parcialmente Protegidas
Resumen
Las áreas marinas protegidas (AMPs) son una herramienta importante para la administración, conservación y restauración de los ecosistemas marinos; sin embargo, el 69% de las AMPs mundiales solamente están parcialmente protegidas (es decir, están abiertas a alguna forma de pesca). Aunque las áreas completamente protegidas tienen resultados bien documentados, incluyendo el incremento en la diversidad de peces y la biomasa, la efectividad de las áreas parcialmente protegidas está en disputa. Puede que las áreas parcialmente protegidas se justifiquen por razones sociales, aunque los resultados sociales con frecuencia dependen de que las AMPs alcancen sus metas ecológicas para distinguirlas de las áreas abiertas y justificar el costo de la protección. Analizamos las percepciones sociales y la efectividad ecológica de 18 áreas parcialmente protegidas y 19 áreas completamente protegidas a lo largo de 7000 km de costa en el sur de Australia. Usamos métodos mixtos, recopilando información por medio de entrevistas semiestructuradas, encuestas en sitio y censos Reef Life (censos visuales submarinos). Analizamos los datos cualitativos de acuerdo con la teoría fundamentada y los datos cuantitativos con modelos lineales de efectos mixtos multivariados y univariados. No encontramos beneficios sociales o ecológicos para las áreas parcialmente protegidas en relación con las áreas abiertas en nuestro estudio. Las áreas parcialmente protegidas no tuvieron más peces, invertebrados o algas que las áreas abiertas; los usuarios de la costa tenían poco entendimiento de ellas; no eran más atractivas que las áreas abiertas; y no eran percibidas como albergues de mejor vida marina que las áreas abiertas. Estos hallazgos proporcionan un contrapunto importante a algunos metaanálisis a gran escala que concluyen que las áreas parcialmente protegidas pueden ser ecológicamente efectivas, pero llegan a esta conclusión con base en medidas más reducidas. Discutimos que las áreas parcialmente protegidas funcionan como pistas falsas para la conservación marina pues crean una ilusión de estar protegidas y consumen pocos recursos para la conservación, pero proporcionan poca o ninguna ganancia ecológica o social en comparación con las áreas abiertas. Las áreas completamente protegidas, al contrario, tienen más especies de peces y biomasa y están bien comprendidas, respaldadas y valoradas por el público. Este tipo de AMPs son percibidas como albergues de mejor vida marina y como en constante mejora con el tiempo al mantenerse en regla con los resultados ecológicos actuales. Los resultados de la conservación pueden mejorarse si se eleva a las áreas parcialmente protegidas a niveles más altos de protección incluyendo la conversión a áreas completamente protegidas.
【摘要】
海洋保护区 (MPAs) 是管理、保护和恢复海洋生态系统的主要工具, 然而, 全球69%的海洋保护区只受到部分保护 (即开放某种形式的捕捞) 。虽然完全保护的保护区的保护成果已经得到充分报道, 包括鱼类多样性和生物量增加, 但部分保护的保护区的有效性仍存在争议。部分保护的保护区的建立可能是出于社会原因, 但其社会结果往往取决于这些海洋保护区是否能实现其生态目标, 以证明其有别于开放海域, 且投入的保护成本具有意义。本研究评估了18 个部分保护的保护区和19 个完全保护的保护区的社会认知和生态效益, 并将它们与南澳大利亚 7000 公里海岸线上的19个开放海域进行了比较。我们采用半结构化访谈、现场调查和 Reef Life 调查报告 (水下视觉调查) 的混合方法收集了数据, 并依照实地理论分析了定性数据, 用多变量和单变量线性混合效应模型分析了定量数据。结果发现, 本研究中的部分保护的保护区相对于开放海域没有明显的社会或生态效益。部分保护的保护区与开放海域相比不具有更多的鱼类、无脊椎动物或藻类;沿海住户对其知之甚少;它没有比开放海域更引人注意;公众也不认为那里有更好的海洋生物。以上发现为一些大尺度荟萃分析得出的结论提供了对比, 这些研究认为部分保护的保护区具有生态有效性, 但仅基于有限的指标得出结论。我们认为, 部分保护的保护区在海洋保护中起到了转移注意力的作用, 因为它们制造了一种保护的假象, 消耗了稀缺的保护资源, 但与开放海域相比, 却很少或根本没有提供社会或生态利益。相比之下, 完全受保护的地区有更多的鱼类物种和生物量, 而且得到了公众很好的认识、支持和重视。它们被认为拥有更好的海洋生物, 且随着时间的推移不断改善, 这与实际的生态结果一致。我们提出, 对部分保护的保护区进行更高级别的保护, 包括转为完全保护区, 可以改善保护成果。【翻译:胡怡思;审校:聂永刚】
Article impact statement: Partially protected areas create an illusion of protection and consume conservation resources for little or no social–ecological gain.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are the most widely applied tool for marine biodiversity conservation, yet many gaps remain in our understanding of their species‐specific effects, partly because the ...socio‐environmental context and spatial autocorrelation may blur and bias perceived conservation outcomes. Based on a large data set of nearly 3000 marine fish surveys spanning all tropical regions of the world, we build spatially explicit models for 658 fish species to estimate species‐specific responses to protection while controlling for the environmental, habitat and socio‐economic contexts experienced across their geographic ranges. We show that the species responses are highly variable, with ~40% of fishes not benefitting from protection. When investigating how traits influence species' responses, we find that rare top‐predators and small herbivores benefit the most from MPAs while mid‐trophic level species benefit to a lesser extent, and rare large herbivores experience adverse effects, indicating potential trophic cascades.
While controlling for the social‐environmental context, we computed 658 species‐specific models to extract the effect of high, medium and low protection of marine reef fish species. We found that nearly 40% of the species did not benefit from protection. We also found that the response was influenced by traits linked to vulnerability to fishing, and that rarity mediated this response through interactions.
Climate change is increasingly impacting marine protected areas (MPAs) and MPA networks, yet adaptation strategies are rarely incorporated into MPA design and management plans according to the ...primary scientific literature. Here we review the state of knowledge for adapting existing and future MPAs to climate change and synthesize case studies (n = 27) of how marine conservation planning can respond to shifting environmental conditions. First, we derive a generalized conservation planning framework based on five published frameworks that incorporate climate change adaptation to inform MPA design. We then summarize examples from the scientific literature to assess how conservation goals were defined, vulnerability assessments performed and adaptation strategies incorporated into the design and management of existing or new MPAs. Our analysis revealed that 82% of real‐world examples of climate change adaptation in MPA planning derive from tropical reefs, highlighting the need for research in other ecosystems and habitat types. We found contrasting recommendations for adaptation strategies at the planning stage, either focusing only on climate refugia, or aiming for representative protection of areas encompassing the full range of expected climate change impacts. Recommendations for MPA management were more unified and focused on adaptative management approaches. Lastly, we evaluate common barriers to adopting climate change adaptation strategies based on reviewing studies which conducted interviews with MPA managers and other conservation practitioners. This highlights a lack of scientific studies evaluating different adaptation strategies and shortcomings in current governance structures as two major barriers, and we discuss how these could be overcome. Our review provides a comprehensive synthesis of planning frameworks, case studies, adaptation strategies and management actions which can inform a more coordinated global effort to adapt existing and future MPA networks to continued climate change.
We reviewed the state of knowledge for adapting existing and future marine protected areas (MPAs) to climate change and synthesized case studies (n = 27) on how MPA planning can respond to shifting environmental conditions. We identified several research topics that warrant further investigation, including focusing on multiple ecosystem types across a range of latitudes, and gathering empirical evidence to build an understanding of the effectiveness of different adaptation strategies.
Views that protected area (PA) expansion relies predominantly on land purchased by government are increasingly being challenged. The inclusion of privately owned PAs (PPAs) in national conservation ...strategies is now commonplace, but little is known about their long‐term persistence and how it compares to that of state‐owned PAs. We undertook the first long‐term assessment of the dynamics of a national system of terrestrial PPAs, assessing its growth, as well as its resilience to downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD). Between 1926 and 2018, 6.2% of all private nature reserves established in South Africa were degazetted, compared to 2.2% of state‐owned nature reserves. Privately owned PA growth exceeded that of state‐owned PAs. Trends in PA establishment differed between privately owned and state‐owned PAs, reflecting different legislative, political, and economic events. Our findings highlight the value of enabling legislative environments to facilitate PPA establishment, and demonstrate the potential of PPAs as a long‐term conservation strategy.
Overfishing may seriously impact fish populations and ecosystems. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are key tools for biodiversity conservation and fisheries management, yet the fisheries benefits remain ...debateable. Many MPAs include a fully protected area (FPA), restricting all activities, within a partially protected area (PPA) where potentially sustainable activities are permitted. An effective tool for biodiversity conservation, FPAs, can sustain local fisheries via spillover, that is the outward export of individuals from FPAs. Spillover refers to both: “ecological spillover”: outward net emigration of juveniles, subadults and/or adults from the FPA; and “fishery spillover”: the fraction of ecological spillover that directly benefits fishery yields and revenues through fishable biomass. Yet, how common is spillover remains controversial. We present a meta‐analysis of a unique global database covering 23 FPAs worldwide, using published literature and purposely collected field data, to assess the capacity of FPAs to export biomass and whether this response was mediated by specific FPA features (e.g. size, age) or species characteristics (e.g. mobility, economic value). Results show fish biomass and abundance outside FPAs was higher: (a) in locations close to FPA borders (<200 m) than further away (>200 m); (b) for species with a high commercial value; and (c) in the presence of PPA surrounding the FPA. Spillover was slightly higher in FPAs that were larger and older and for more mobile species. Based on the broadest data set compiled to date on marine species ecological spillover beyond FPAs' borders, our work highlights elements that could guide strategies to enhance local fishery management using MPAs.
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