Three dimensional (3D) food printing is being widely investigated in food sector recent years due to its multiple advantages such as customized food designs, personalized nutrition, simplifying ...supply chain, and broadening of the available food material.
Currently, 3D printing is being applied in food areas such as military and space food, elderly food, sweets food. An accurate and precise printing is critical to a successful and smooth printing. In this paper, we collect and analyze the information on how to achieve a precise and accurate food printing, and review the application of 3D printing in several food areas, as well as give some proposals and provide a critical insight into the trends and challenges to 3D food printing.
To realize an accurate and precise printing, three main aspects should be investigated considerably: material properties, process parameters, and post-processing methods. We emphasize that the factors below should be given special attention to achieve a successful printing: rheological properties, binding mechanisms, thermodynamic properties, pre-treatment and post-processing methods. In addition, there are three challenges on 3D food printing: 1) printing precision and accuracy 2) process productivity and 3) production of colorful, multi-flavor, multi-structure products. A broad application of this technique is expected once these challenges are addressed.
•Factors affecting 3D food printing precision were discussed.•Applications of 3D printing in food sector were reviewed.•Challenges to 3D food printing were proposed.
The use of 3-Dimensional (3D) printing, also known as additive manufacturing (AM), technology in food sector has a great potential to fabricate 3D constructs with complex geometries, elaborated ...textures and tailored nutritional contents. For this reason, 3D technology is driving major innovations in food industry. Here, we review the use of 3D printing techniques to design food materials. Our discussions bring a new insight into how essential food material properties behave during application of 3D printing techniques. We suggest that the rational design of 3D food constructs relies on three key factors: (1) printability, (2) applicability and (3) post-processing. Especial emphasis is devoted to how the advantages/limitations of 3D printing techniques affect the end-use properties of the printed food constructs.
•3D food printing technologies overview.•Design of new textures and tailored nutritional content.•Design of complex geometries of food structure.•How 3D printing techniques are influenced by material properties?•Rational choice of 3D printing technique to design food.
► Spray drying is a good technique for retention of bayberry polyphenols. ► We evaluated the polyphenol stability of bayberry powder during storage. ► Spray dried bayberry powder should be stored at ...less than 25°C and aw of 0.33. ► Anthocyanin in bayberry powder is more readily degraded than other phenolic compounds.
Bayberry juice was spray dried with maltodextrin (DE 10) as a carrier and then stored under different temperature and water activities (aw). The retention of the total phenolic content (TPC) and total anthocaynins (ACN) during the drying process were about 96% and 94%, respectively, suggesting spray drying was a satisfactory technique for drying heat sensitive polyphenols. Under an aw of 0.11–0.44, the TPC and ACN in bayberry powders decreased by about 6–8% and 7–27%, respectively, after 6months storage at 4°C; at 25°C for the same storage period the decreases were between 6–9% and 9–37%, respectively, while at 40°C the decreases were in the range 7–37% and 9–94%. The anthocyanin component was more readily degraded relative to other phenolic compounds. The results suggest that bayberry powder should be stored at less than 25°C and aw of 0.33, on account of greater polyphenol stability under such conditions.
3D food printing is an emerging technology with a potential to influence the food manufacturing sector. Rheological properties of food inks are critical for their successful 3D printing. However, the ...relationships between rheological properties and 3D printability have not been clearly defined in food systems. In this work, a gel model system composed of carrageenan-xanthan-starch was prepared for an extrusion-based 3D food printer. The 3D printing process was divided into three stages and the corresponding rheological properties of inks for each stage were determined, namely extrusion stage (yield stress, viscosity and shear-thinning behaviour), recovery stage (shear recovery and temperature recovery properties) and self-supporting stage (complex modulus G* and yield stress at room temperature). Finally, 3D printability of the model inks was systematically studied starting with printing lines/pentagram (one dimensional, 1D structure) to printing lattice scaffold (two dimensional, 2D structure) and finally printing cylinders (three dimensional, 3D structure). Results demonstrated that addition of starch and xanthan gum in k-carrageenan based inks increased inks' gelation temperature (Tgelation), viscosity (within shear rate of 0.01–100 1/s), yield stress, G*, enhanced shear-thinning (thixotropic) behaviour and reduced time-dependence of modulus (temperature recovery). Rheological responses of yield stress (cross-over point where G′ (elastic modulus) equals to G′′ (viscous modulus) in the stress sweep tests) and shear-thinning behaviour (viscosity decreased when shear rate increased) were closely related to ink's extrudability. Inks' gelation temperature (Tgelation) and time-dependent behaviour (gelation time, tgel) significantly affected their printability and shape retention performance. The mechanical strength of the ink is important to be self-supporting, especially for 3D structures. Insights achieved from this study could provide guidance on improving 3D printability of foods that use hydrocolloids as a printing aid.
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•Thixotropic and thermo-reversible gel system was used as a model in 3D printing.•Ink's rheology and 3D printability was correlated in the whole printing process.•1D, 2D, 3D structures were fabricated and correlated with ink's rheology.
3D printing was used for printing mashed potatoes (MP) constructs with variable internal structures. The dimensional properties, textural and structural qualities of the printed objects were ...investigated as a function of infill levels (10, 40 and 70%), infill patterns (rectilinear, honeycomb and hibert curve), and number of shell perimeters (3, 5 and 7). The printed samples significantly matched the designed geometries. Hardness and gumminess were strongly related to infill levels and perimeters, but the printing paths being performed to fill the samples showed no effect on them. Firmness and Young's modulus were only affected by infill percentage but not by perimeters and printing paths. Further, comparative assessment of 3D printed and cast samples were also conducted on the textural properties and microstructure features. Microstructure analysis indicated a uniform internal structure was obtained for cast sample. In comparison, an obvious layered structure was observed in longitudinal-sectional direction while a porous structure was obtained in cross-sectional view of 3D printed samples regardless of infill levels. 3D printed samples, even at 100% infill, were significantly (p < .05) less hard, by up to 26.75% and 28.36% in terms of hardness and gumminess, compared to cast samples. The results suggest that 3D printing considerably changes the properties of printed samples, possibly offering a new way for tailoring textural properties of printed samples through creating their internal structure.
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•Different internal structure of mashed potatoes was created by 3D printing.•3D printing offers a new way for tailoring textural properties.•Comparative assessment was made between 3D printed and cast samples.
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•The mixtures of SPI, k-carrageenan and vanilla flavor was established for 4D printing.•The flavor of 3D printed products were affected by different powers from microwave at 50, 80 ...and 110 W for 5 min.•Higher temperature potentially induced dominant flavor of the 3D printed products.
The aim of this study is to establish food 4D printing products with the property of automatic flavor change by the post-printing application of microwave as an external thermal stimulus. The combination of a formulation comprised of soybean protein isolate (SPI), k-carrageenan (CAR) and vanilla flavor (VNL) was used as printing material. The change in flavor profile was observed by the level of external heat stimulus as a 4D effect. The results of e-nose revealed a significant difference (P < 0.05) in sensors 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12 and 13 in the sample added with vanilla flavor meanwhile GC–MS detected 25 volatiles compounds. Notably, four new generated flavor compounds (1-Octen-3-ol, Maltol, Ethyl maltol and eugenal) were identified when added with vanilla flavor. Moreover, e-tongue results indicated the taste characteristics of the sample with vanilla flavor presenting more intense bitterness, astringency, umami, richness and saltiness. The rheological property and water distribution (LF-NMR) determined at different concentrations levels of carrageenan showed that SPI gel made with 3% (w/v) carrageenan was the most suitable for 3D printing among all three concentrations considered in this study. Overall, the results can conclude that the addition of carrageenan and post-printing microwave heating at an optimum level of microwave power enhanced the printability and flavor of SPI gel.
Three‐dimensional (3D) printing has been successfully applied to food processing, and widely appreciated by food science researchers. Recently, a lot of researches and review works have been done ...focusing on the ink's properties, printer design, and printing parameters. However, few articles specifically describe 3D models and slicing methods used in food printing. This work introduced the requirements for 3D printing models in some specific areas, discussed the critical parameter settings in the model slicing processes, and discussed the possible use of numerical techniques in the model building and printing of food 3D printing. The objective of this review is to increase researchers' focus on 3D printing models and slices in order to optimize the printing process and to provide some useful information for future research.
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is an emerging technology that can be applied to processing of wide range of food products. The aim of this paper was to assess the printability of brown rice and ...evaluate the effects of the three variables: nozzle size (0.84 mm, 1.20 mm, 1.56 mm), perimeters (3, 5, 7), and infill densities (15%, 45%, 75%) on the quality attributes of 3D printed samples. The dimensional properties, height and diameter, were used to evaluate the printing precision, and the texture properties were assessed as hardness and gumminess. Results indicated that the printed samples matched the designed one reasonably well with some deviations in dimension induced by the three variables. The nozzle size and perimeters both have effects on the dimensional properties of 3D printed samples, and the infill density has no effect on that. With the decrease of nozzle size from 1.56 to 0.84 mm, both height and diameter of printed samples are more closely to the designed ones, which means smaller size of nozzle has a good performance on the dimensional properties of 3D printed samples. The texture properties (hardness and gumminess) were strongly related to infill density, followed by perimeters and nozzle size, while the nozzle size was thought to not only change the void rate, but also change the number of layers deposited which indirectly affected the texture characteristics. Besides, the printing time can be reduced a lot due to the decrease of void rate, which suggests a good way to improve the efficiency of printing and reduce the hardness through creating internal structure.
For many dairy products such as cappuccino-style beverages, the top foam layer determines the overall product quality (e.g. their appearance, texture, mouthfeel and coffee aroma release rate) and the ...consumer acceptance. Proteins in milk are excellent foaming agents, but the foaming properties of milk are greatly affected by several factors such as the protein content, ratio of caseins to whey proteins, casein micelle size, pH, minerals, proteolysis, presence of low molecular weight compounds (lipids and their hydrolyzed products) and high molecular weight compounds (polysaccharides); milk processing conditions (e.g. homogenization, heat treatment and aging); and foaming method and temperature. These factors either induce changes in the molecular structure, charge and surface activity of the milk proteins; or interfere and/or compete with milk proteins in the formation of highly viscoelastic film to stabilize the foam. Some factors affect the foamability while others determine the foam stability. In this review, functionality of milk proteins in the production and stabilization of liquid foam, under effects of these factors is comprehensively discussed. This will help to control the foaming process of milk on demand for a particular application, which still is difficult and challenging for researchers and the dairy industry.
Microwave assisted drying methods, namely, microwave freeze drying (MFD) and microwave vacuum drying (MVD) were applied to dehydrate Chinese yam, with hot air drying (HA), freeze drying (FD) as ...contrast. The effects of drying methods on physico-chemical, functional, pasting, thermal and rheological properties as well as microstructure were evaluated. Resulted showed that the physico-chemical properties (e.g. content of polysaccharide, protein, total starch and apparent amylose content as well as bulk density, color) of yam flours were significantly affected by drying method. Functionally, the highest water binding capacity but lowest solubility was achieved by FD samples. The differences in thermal properties were presumed to be affected by protein retention to some extent. MFD flours presented the highest peak viscosity and final viscosity, while lower trend of retrogradation than that of FD flours. Rheological measurement demonstrated that all tested yam doughs exhibited solid-like behavior but variant intensity. Yam doughs produced by microwave assisted drying methods showed more solid-like property in cold paste (25 and 40 °C) as compared to that of FD as well as HA. Furthermore, the surface damage of yam starch granules was found in microwave assisted drying methods. These observations provided a deep understanding of the characteristics of Chinese yam flour affected by different drying methods, which would be conducive to their applications in food industry.
•Best hydration was found in microwave freeze dried flour.•Microwave freeze dried flour can be used as thickener in food industry.•The highest long- and short-range order of starch was found in hot air dried flour.•Surface damage of starch granules was found in microwave assisted drying methods.
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