Currently, a broad interdisciplinary research effort is pursued on biomedical applications of 2D materials (2DMs) beyond graphene, due to their unique physicochemical and electronic properties. The ...discovery of new 2DMs is driven by the diverse chemical compositions and tuneable characteristics offered. Researchers are increasingly attracted to exploit those as drug delivery systems, highly efficient photothermal modalities, multimodal therapeutics with non‐invasive diagnostic capabilities, biosensing, and tissue engineering. A crucial limitation of some of the 2DMs is their moderate colloidal stability in aqueous media. In addition, the lack of suitable functionalisation strategies should encourage the exploration of novel chemical methodologies with that purpose. Moreover, the clinical translation of these emerging materials will require undertaking of fundamental research on biocompatibility, toxicology and biopersistence in the living body as well as in the environment. Here, a thorough account of the biomedical applications using 2DMs explored today is given.
Different classes of two‐dimensional materials are emerging as biomaterial alternatives to graphene due to their unique physicochemical properties and their good biocompatibility. Currently, applications including anticancer therapeutics, multimodal bioimaging, cancer theranostics, biosensing, tissue engineering, and antimicrobial coatings are explored. However, there are still several concerns and new challenges ahead of these materials before their translation into clinical use.
Nanodiamond(ND)‐based technologies are flourishing in a wide variety of fields spanning from electronics and optics to biomedicine. NDs are considered a family of nanomaterials with an sp3 carbon ...core and a variety of sizes, shapes, and surfaces. They show interesting physicochemical properties such as hardness, stiffness, and chemical stability. Additionally, they can undergo ad‐hoc core and surface functionalization, which tailors them for the desired applications. Noteworthy, the properties of NDs and their surface chemistry are highly dependent on the synthetic method used to prepare them. In this Minireview, we describe the preparation of NDs from the materials‐chemistry viewpoint. The different methodologies of synthesis, purification, and surface functionalization as well as biomedical applications are critically discussed. New synthetic approaches as well as limits and obstacles of NDs are presented and analyzed.
Nanodiamonds are forever: Nanodiamonds (NDs) are used in a variety of fields spanning from electronics and optics to biomedicine. Controlled surface functionalization can make NDs high‐performant nanomaterials. In this Minireview, different methodologies of synthesis, purification, and surface functionalization as well as biomedical applications are critically discussed.
The graphene family has captured the interest and the imagination of an increasing number of scientists working in different fields, ranging from composites to flexible electronics. In the area of ...biomedical applications, graphene is especially involved in drug delivery, biosensing and tissue engineering, with strong contributions to the whole nanomedicine area. Besides the interesting results obtained so far and the evident success, there are still many problems to solve, on the way to the manufacturing of biomedical devices, including the lack of standardization in the production of the graphene family members. Control of lateral size, aggregation state (single vs. few layers) and oxidation state (unmodified graphene vs. oxidized graphenes) is essential for the translation of this material into clinical assays. In this Tutorial Review we critically describe the latest developments of the graphene family materials into the biomedical field. We analyze graphene-based devices starting from graphene synthetic strategies, functionalization and processibility protocols up to the final in vitro and in vivo applications. We also address the toxicological impact and the limitations in translating graphene materials into advanced clinical tools. Finally, new trends and guidelines for future developments are presented.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been proposed and actively explored as multipurpose innovative carriers for drug delivery and diagnostic applications. Their versatile physicochemical features enable the ...covalent and noncovalent introduction of several pharmaceutically relevant entities and allow for rational design of novel candidate nanoscale constructs for drug development. CNTs can be functionalized with different functional groups to carry simultaneously several moieties for targeting, imaging, and therapy. Among the most interesting examples of such multimodal CNT constructs described in this Account is one carrying a fluorescein probe together with the antifungal drug amphotericin B or fluorescein and the antitumor agent methotrexate. The biological action of the drug in these cases is retained or, as in the case of amphotericin B constructs, enhanced, while CNTs are able to reduce the unwanted toxicity of the drug administered alone. Ammonium-functionalized CNTs can also be considered very promising vectors for gene-encoding nucleic acids. Indeed, we have formed stable complexes between cationic CNTs and plasmid DNA and demonstrated the enhancement of the gene therapeutic capacity in comparison to DNA alone. On the other hand, CNTs conjugated with antigenic peptides can be developed as a new and effective system for synthetic vaccine applications. What makes CNTs quite unique is their ability, first shown by our groups in 2004, to passively cross membranes of many different types of cells following a translocation mechanism that has been termed the nanoneedle mechanism. In that way, CNTs open innumerable possibilities for future drug discovery based on intracellular targets that have been hard to reach until today. Moreover, adequately functionalized CNTs as those shown in this Account can be rapidly eliminated from the body following systemic administration offering further encouragment for their development. CNT excretion rates and accumulation in organs and any reactivity with the immune system will determine the CNT safety profile and, consequently, any further pharmaceutical development. Caution is advised about the need for systematic data on the long-term fate of these very interesting and versatile nano-objects in correlation with the type of CNT material used. CNTs are gradually plyaing a bigger and more important role in the emerging field of nanomedicine; however, we need to guarantee that the great opportunities they offer will be translated into feasible and safe constructs to be included in drug discovery and development pipelines.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are recognized as promising nanomaterials for technological advancement. However, the stigma of structural similarity with asbestos fibers has slowed down progress of CNTs in ...nanomedicine. Nevertheless, it also prompted thorough studies that have revealed that functionalized CNTs (fCNTs) can biologically behave in a very different and safer manner. Here we review pristine and fCNT fate in biological settings, focusing on the importance of protein interaction, formation of the protein corona, and modulation of immune response. The emerging consensus on the desirable fCNT properties to achieve immunological neutrality, and even biodegradation, shows great promise for CNT adoption in medicine.
Graphene is considered the future revolutionary material. For its development, it is of fundamental importance to evaluate the safety profile and the impact on health. Graphene is part of a bigger ...family which has been identified as the graphene family nanomaterials (GFNs). Clarifying the existence of multiple graphene forms allows better understanding the differences between the components and eventually correlating their biological effects to the physicochemical characteristics of each structure. Some in vitro and in vivo studies clearly showed no particular risks, while others have indicated that GFNs might become health hazards. This Minireview critically discusses the recent studies on the toxicity of GFNs to provide some perspective on the possible risks to their future development in materials and biomedical sciences.
Two sides of the coin: Graphene is part of a bigger family identified as the graphene family nanomaterials (GFNs). For their development, it is important to evaluate the safety profiles and impacts on health. Some studies clearly show no particular risks exist and others indicate that GFNs might become health hazards.
Nowadays cancer remains one of the main causes of death in the world. Current diagnostic techniques need to be improved to provide earlier diagnosis and treatment. Traditional therapy approaches to ...cancer are limited by lack of specificity and systemic toxicity. In this scenario nanomaterials could be good allies to give more specific cancer treatment effectively reducing undesired side effects and giving at the same time accurate diagnosis and successful therapy. In this context, thanks to its unique physical and chemical properties, graphene, graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene (rGO) have recently attracted tremendous interest in biomedicine including cancer therapy. Herein we analyzed all studies presented in literature related to cancer fight using graphene and graphene-based conjugates. In this context, we aimed at the full picture of the state of the art providing new inputs for future strategies in the cancer theranostic by using of graphene. We found an impressive increasing interest in the material for cancer therapy and/or diagnosis. The majority of the works (73%) have been carried out on drug and gene delivery applications, following by photothermal therapy (32%), imaging (31%) and photodynamic therapy (10%). A 27% of the studies focused on theranostic applications. Part of the works here discussed contribute to the growth of the theranostic field covering the use of imaging (i.e. ultrasonography, positron electron tomography, and fluorescent imaging) combined to one or more therapeutic modalities. We found that the use of graphene in cancer theranostics is still in an early but rapidly growing stage of investigation. Any technology based on nanomaterials can significantly enhance their possibility to became the real revolution in medicine if combines diagnosis and therapy at the same time. We performed a comprehensive summary of the latest progress of graphene cancer fight and highlighted the future challenges and the innovative possible theranostic applications.
A method for the double functionalization of graphene oxide (GO) under mild alkaline conditions has been developed. Two functional groups were covalently linked to GO in two steps: the first group ...was attached by an epoxide ring‐opening reaction and the second, bearing an amine function, was covalently conjugated to benzoquinone attached to the GO. The doubly functionalized GO was characterized by several techniques, confirming the sequential covalent modification of the GO surface with two different functional groups. This method is straightforward and the reaction conditions are mild, allowing preservation of the structure and properties of GO. This strategy could be exploited to prepare multifunctional GO conjugates with potential applications in many fields ranging from materials science to biomedicine.
Accessorizing: A versatile method for the chemoselective double functionalization of graphene oxide has been developed. The method involves epoxide ring opening by a protected aminoethanethiol, and subsequent reaction of the hydroxy groups with benzoquinone followed by Michael addition of an amine derivative.
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