Context. Recent studies with, for example, Spitzer and Herschel have suggested that star formation in dense molecular gas may be governed by essentially the same “law” in Galactic clouds and external ...galaxies. This conclusion remains controversial, however, in large part because different tracers have been used to probe the mass of dense molecular gas in Galactic and extragalactic studies. Aims. We aimed to calibrate the HCN and HCO+ lines commonly used as dense gas tracers in extragalactic studies and to test the possible universality of the star-formation efficiency in dense gas (≳104 cm-3), SFEdense. Methods. We conducted wide-field mapping of the Aquila, Ophiuchus, and Orion B clouds at ~0.04 pc resolution in the J = 1 − 0 transition of HCN, HCO+, and their isotopomers. For each cloud, we derived a reference estimate of the dense gas mass MHerschelAV > 8, as well as the strength of the local far-ultraviolet (FUV) radiation field, using Herschel Gould Belt survey data products, and estimated the star-formation rate from direct counting of the number of Spitzer young stellar objects. Results. The H13CO+(1–0) and H13CN(1–0) lines were observed to be good tracers of the dense star-forming filaments detected with Herschel. Comparing the luminosities LHCN and LHCO+ measured in the HCN and HCO+ lines with the reference masses MHerschelAV > 8, the empirical conversion factors αHerschel − HCN (=MHerschelAV > 8/LHCN) and αHerschel − HCO+ (=MHerschelAV > 8/LHCO+) were found to be significantly anti-correlated with the local FUV strength. In agreement with a recent independent study of Orion B by Pety et al., the HCN and HCO+ lines were found to trace gas down to AV ≳ 2. As a result, published extragalactic HCN studies must be tracing all of the moderate density gas down to nH2 ≲ 103 cm-3. Estimating the contribution of this moderate density gas from the typical column density probability distribution functions in nearby clouds, we obtained the following G0-dependent HCN conversion factor for external galaxies: αHerschel − HCNfit′ = 64 × G0-0.34. Re-estimating the dense gas masses in external galaxies with αHerschel − HCNfit′(G0), we found that SFEdense is remarkably constant, with a scatter of less than 1.5 orders of magnitude around 4.5 × 10-8 yr-1, over eight orders of magnitude in dense gas mass. Conclusions. Our results confirm that SFEdense of galaxies is quasi-universal on a wide range of scales from ~ 1–10 pc to > 10 kpc. Based on the tight link between star formation and filamentary structure found in Herschel studies of nearby clouds, we argue that SFEdense is primarily set by the “microphysics” of core and star formation along filaments.
The relative importance of primordial molecular cloud fragmentation versus large-scale accretion still remains to be assessed in the context of massive core/star formation. Studying the kinematics of ...the dense gas surrounding massive-star progenitors can tell us the extent to which large-scale flow of material impacts the growth in mass of star-forming cores. Here we present a comprehensive dataset of the 5500(±800) M⊙ infrared dark cloud SDC335.579-0.272 (hereafter SDC335), which exhibits a network of cold, dense, parsec-long filaments. Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) Cycle 0 observations reveal two massive star-forming cores, MM1 and MM2, sitting at the centre of SDC335 where the filaments intersect. With a gas mass of 545(-385+770) M⊙ contained within a source diameter of 0.05 pc, MM1 is one of the most massive, compact protostellar cores ever observed in the Galaxy. As a whole, SDC335 could potentially form an OB cluster similar to the Trapezium cluster in Orion. ALMA and Mopra single-dish observations of the SDC335 dense gas furthermore reveal that the kinematics of this hub-filament system are consistent with a global collapse of the cloud. These molecular-line data point towards an infall velocity Vinf = 0.7( ± 0.2) km s-1, and a total mass infall rate Ṁinf ≃ 2.5(±1.0) × 10-3 M⊙ yr-1 towards the central pc-size region of SDC335. This infall rate brings 750(±300) M⊙ of gas to the centre of the cloud per free-fall time (tff = 3 × 105 yr). This is enough to double the mass already present in the central pc-size region in 3.5-1.0+2.2 × tff. These values suggest that the global collapse of SDC335 over the past million year resulted in the formation of an early O-type star progenitor at the centre of the cloud’s gravitational potential well.
Context. The earliest phases of the formation of high-mass stars are not well known. It is unclear whether high-mass cores in monolithic collapse exist or not, and what the accretion process and ...origin of the material feeding the precursors of high-mass stars are. As outflows are natural consequences of the accretion process, they represent one of the few (indirect) tracers of accretion. Aims. We aim to search for individual outflows from high-mass cores in Cygnus X and to study the characteristics of the detected ejections. We compare these to what has been found for the low-mass protostars, to understand how ejection and accretion change and behave with final stellar mass. Methods. We used CO (2–1) PdBI observations towards six massive dense clumps, containing a total of 9 high-mass cores. We estimated the bolometric luminosities and masses of the 9 high-mass cores and measured the energetics of outflows. We compared our sample to low-mass objects studied in the literature and developed simple evolutionary models to reproduce the observables. Results. We find that 8 out of 9 high-mass cores are driving clear individual outflows. They are therefore true equivalents of Class 0 protostars in the high-mass regime. The remaining core, CygX-N53 MM2, has only a tentative outflow detection. It could be one of the first examples of a true individual high-mass prestellar core. We also find that the momentum flux of high-mass objects has a linear relation to the reservoir of mass in the envelope, as a scale up of the relations previously found for low-mass protostars. This suggests a fundamental proportionality between accretion rates and envelope masses. The linear dependency implies that the timescale for accretion is similar for high- and low-mass stars. Conclusions. The existence of strong outflows driven by high-mass cores in Cygnus X clearly indicates that high-mass Class 0 protostars exist. The collapsing envelopes of these Class 0 objects have similar sizes and a similar fragmentation scale to the low-mass equivalents, and have enough mass to directly form high-mass stars from a monolithic collapse. If the pre-collapse evolution is quasi-static, the fragmentation scale is expected to limit the size of the initial mass reservoirs for all masses leading to higher densities at birth and therefore shorter free-fall times for higher mass stars. However, we find the collapse timescales to be similar for both low- and high-mass objects. This implies that in a quasi-static view, we would require significant turbulent/magnetic support to slow down the collapse of the more massive envelopes. But with this support still to be discovered, and based on independent indications of large dynamics in pre-collapse gas for high-mass star formation, we propose that such an identical collapse timescale implies that the initial densities, which should set the duration of the collapse, should be similar for all masses. Since the fragmentation scale is identical for all masses, a lower initial density requires that the mass that incorporates massive stars has to have been accreted from larger scales than those of low-mass stars and in a dynamical way.
The spatial distribution and fractional cover of plant functional types (PFTs) is a key uncertainty in land surface models (LSMs) that is closely linked to uncertainties in global carbon, hydrology ...and energy budgets. Land cover is considered to be an Essential Climate Variable because changes in it can result in local, regional or global scale impacts on climate. In LSMs, land cover (LC) class maps are converted to PFT fractional maps using a cross-walking (CW) table by prescribing the fraction of each PFT that occurs within each LC class. In this study we assess the largest plausible range of PFT uncertainty derived from remotely sensed LC maps produced under the European Space Agency Land Cover Climate Change Initiative on simulations of land surface fluxes using 3 leading LSMs. We evaluate the impact of uncertainty due to both LC classification algorithms, and CW procedure, on energy, moisture and carbon fluxes in LSMs. We investigate the maximum plausible range of uncertainty deriving from both LC and CW within the context of a potential biomass scale (bare ground-grass-shrub-tree), representing a gradient from low to high biomass PFTs. More specifically, plausible alternative land cover maps and associated PFT fractional distributions were produced to prioritise low or high biomass vegetation in the LC classification (uncertainty in LC), and subsequently in the assignment of PFT fractions for each LC class (uncertainty in CW), relative to a reference PFT distribution.
We examined the impact of PFT uncertainty on 3 key variables in the carbon, water and energy cycles (gross primary production (GPP), evapo-transpiration (ET), and albedo), for 3 LSMs (JSBACH, JULES and ORCHIDEE) at global scale. Results showed a greater uncertainty in PFT fraction due to CW as opposed to LC uncertainty, for all three variables. CW uncertainty in tree fraction was found to be particularly important in the northern boreal forests for simulated LSM albedo. Uncertainty in the balance between grass and bare soil fraction in arid parts of Africa, central Asia, and central Australia was also found to influence albedo and ET in all models. The spread due to PFT uncertainty for albedo was between 30 and 105% of inter-model uncertainty, for GPP between 20 and 90%, and for ET 0–30%. Each model had a different sensitivity to PFT uncertainty, for example, GPP in JSBACH was found to have a much higher sensitivity to PFT uncertainty in the tropics than JULES and ORCHIDEE, whereas the inverse was true for ET.
These results show that inter-model uncertainty for key variables in LSMs can be reduced by more accurate representation of PFT distributions. Future efforts in land cover mapping should therefore be focused on reducing CW uncertainty through better understanding of the fractional cover of PFTs within a land cover class. Efforts to reduce LC uncertainty should particularly be focused on more accurate mapping of grass and bare soil fractions in arid areas. In the context of Land Surface Models, these results demonstrate that prescribed vegetation distribution in models is a key source of uncertainty that is comparable to the spread between models for key model state variables.
•Plant functional types (PFT) mapped using land cover (LC) and cross-walking (CW).•African & South American savannahs are key to reducing carbon cycle uncertainty.•Uncertainty in bare soil & grass PFTs drives uncertainty in Europe & N America.•Northern high latitude tree cover uncertainty impacts surface albedo.•Clear need to better constrain CW fractions of PFTs using high resolution mapping.
Context. The formation of high mass stars and clusters occurs in giant molecular clouds. Objects in evolved stages of massive star formation such as protostars, hot molecular cores, and ultracompact ...HII regions have been studied in more detail than earlier, colder objects. Further progress thus requires the analysis of the time before massive protostellar objects can be probed by their infrared emission. With this in mind, the APEX Telescope Large Area Survey of the whole inner Galactic plane at 870 μm (ATLASGAL) has been carried out to provide a global view of cold dust and star formation at submillimetre wavelengths. Aims. We derive kinematic distances to a large sample of massive cold dust clumps from their measured line velocities. We estimate masses and sizes of ATLASGAL sources, for which the kinematic distance ambiguity is resolved. Methods. The ATLASGAL sample is divided into groups of sources, which are located close together, mostly within a radius of 2 pc, and have velocities in a similar range with a median velocity dispersion of ~1 km s-1. We use NH3, N2H+, and CS velocities to calculate near and far kinematic distances to those groups. Results. We obtain 296 groups of ATLASGAL sources in the first quadrant and 393 groups in the fourth quadrant, which are coherent in space and velocity. We analyse HI self-absorption and HI absorption to resolve the kinematic distance ambiguity to 689 complexes of submm clumps. They are associated with 12CO emission probing large-scale structure and 13CO (1–0) line as well as the 870 μm dust continuum on a smaller scale. We obtain a scale height of ~28 ± 2 pc and displacement below the Galactic midplane of ~−7 ± 1 pc. Within distances from 2 to 18 kpc ATLASGAL clumps have a broad range of gas masses with a median of 1050 M⊙ as well as a wide distribution of radii with a median of 0.4 pc. Their distribution in galactocentric radii is correlated with spiral arms. Conclusions. Using a statistically significant ATLASGAL sample we derive a power-law exponent of −2.2 ± 0.1 of the clump mass function. This is consistent with the slope derived for clusters and with that of the stellar initial mass function. Examining the power-law index for different galactocentric distances and various source samples shows that it is independent of environment and evolutionary phase. Fitting the mass-size relationship by a power law gives a slope of 1.76 ± 0.01 for cold sources such as IRDCs and warm clumps associated with HII regions.
Context. The formation processes and the evolutionary stages of high-mass stars are poorly understood compared to low-mass stars. Large-scale surveys are needed to provide an unbiased census of high ...column density sites that can potentially host precursors to high-mass stars. Aims. The ATLASGAL survey covers 420 sq. degree of the Galactic plane, between −80° < ℓ < +60° at 870 μm. Here we identify the population of embedded sources throughout the inner Galaxy. With this catalog we first investigate the general statistical properties of dust condensations in terms of their observed parameters, such as flux density and angular size. Then using mid-infrared surveys we aim to investigate their star formation activity and the Galactic distribution of star-forming and quiescent clumps. Our ultimate goal is to determine the statistical properties of quiescent and star-forming clumps within the Galaxy and to constrain the star formation processes. Methods. We optimized the source extraction method, referred to as MRE-GCL, for the ATLASGAL maps in order to generate a catalog of compact sources. This technique is based on multiscale filtering to remove extended emission from clouds to better determine the parameters corresponding to the embedded compact sources. In a second step we extracted the sources by fitting 2D Gaussians with the Gaussclumps algorithm. Results. We have identified in total 10861 compact submillimeter sources with fluxes above 5σ. Completeness tests show that this catalog is 97% complete above 5σ and >99% complete above 7σ. Correlating this sample of clumps with mid-infrared point source catalogs (MSX at 21.3 μm and WISE at 22 μm), we have determined a lower limit of 33% that is associated with embedded protostellar objects. We note that the proportion of clumps associated with mid-infrared sources increases with increasing flux density, achieving a rather constant fraction of ~75% of all clumps with fluxes over 5 Jy/beam being associated with star formation. Examining the source counts as a function of Galactic longitude, we are able to identify the most prominent star-forming regions in the Galaxy. Conclusions. We present here the compact source catalog of the full ATLASGAL survey and investigate their characteristic properties. From the fraction of the likely massive quiescent clumps (~25%), we estimate a formation time scale of ~ 7.5 ± 2.5 × 104 yr for the deeply embedded phase before the emergence of luminous young stellar objects. Such a short duration for the formation of high-mass stars in massive clumps clearly proves that the earliest phases have to be dynamic with supersonic motions.
Context. The formation of massive stars is a highly complex process in which it is unclear whether the star-forming gas is in global gravitational collapse or an equilibrium state supported by ...turbulence and/or magnetic fields. In addition, magnetic fields may play a decisive role in the star-formation process since they influence the efficiency of gas infall onto the protostar. Aims. By studying one of the most massive and dense star-forming regions in the Galaxy at a distance of less than 3 kpc, i.e. the filament containing the well-known sources DR21 and DR21(OH), we attempt to obtain observational evidence to help us to discriminate between these two views. Methods. We use molecular line data from our 13CO 1 $\to$ 0, CS 2 $\to$ 1, and N2H+ 1 $\to$ 0 survey of the Cygnus X region obtained with the FCRAO and high-angular resolution observations in isotopomeric lines of CO, CS, HCO+, N2H+, and H2CO, obtained with the IRAM 30 m telescope, to investigate the distribution of the different phases of molecular gas. Gravitational infall is identified by the presence of inverse P Cygni profiles that are detected in optically thick lines, while the optically thinner isotopomers are found to reach a peak in the self-absorption gap. Results. We observe a complex velocity field and velocity dispersion in the DR21 filament in which regions of the highest column-density, i.e., dense cores, have a lower velocity dispersion than the surrounding gas and velocity gradients that are not (only) due to rotation. Infall signatures in optically thick line profiles of HCO+ and 12CO are observed along and across the whole DR21 filament. By modelling the observed spectra, we obtain a typical infall speed of ~0.6 km s-1 and mass accretion rates of the order of a few 10-3 $M_\odot$ yr-1 for the two main clumps constituting the filament. These massive clumps (4900 and 3300 $M_\odot$ at densities of around 105 cm-3 within 1 pc diameter) are both gravitationally contracting (with free-fall times much shorter than sound crossing times and low virial parameter α). The more massive of the clumps, DR21(OH), is connected to a sub-filament, apparently “falling” onto the clump. This filament runs parallel to the magnetic field. Conclusions. All observed kinematic features in the DR21 filament (velocity field, velocity dispersion, and infall), its filamentary morphology, and the existence of (a) sub-filament(s) can be explained if the DR21 filament was formed by the convergence of flows on large scales and is now in a state of global gravitational collapse. Whether this convergence of flows originated from self-gravity on larger scales or from other processes cannot be determined by the present study. The observed velocity field and velocity dispersion are consistent with results from (magneto)-hydrodynamic simulations where the cores lie at the stagnation points of convergent turbulent flows.
Context.
Dense molecular filaments are ubiquituous in the interstellar medium, yet their internal physical conditions and the role of gravity, turbulence, the magnetic field, radiation, and the ...ambient cloud during their evolution remain debated.
Aims.
We study the kinematics and physical conditions in the Musca filament, the ambient cloud, and the Chamaeleon-Musca complex to constrain the physics of filament formation.
Methods.
We produced CO(2–1) isotopologue maps with the APEX telescope that cut through the Musca filament. We further study a NANTEN2
12
CO(1–0) map of the full Musca cloud, H
I
emission of the Chamaeleon-Musca complex, a
Planck
polarisation map, line radiative transfer models,
Gaia
data, and synthetic observations from filament formation simulations.
Results.
The Musca cloud, with a size of ~3–6 pc, contains multiple velocity components. Radiative transfer modelling of the CO emission indicates that the Musca filament consists of a cold (~10 K), dense (
n
H
2
∼ 10
4
cm
−3
) crest, which is best described with a cylindrical geometry. Connected to the crest, a separate gas component at
T
~ 15 K and
n
H
2
∼ 10
3
cm
−3
is found, the so-called strands. The velocity-coherent filament crest has an organised transverse velocity gradient that is linked to the kinematics of the nearby ambient cloud. This velocity gradient has an angle ≥30° with respect to the local magnetic field orientation derived from
Planck
, and the magnitude of the velocity gradient is similar to the transonic linewidth of the filament crest. Studying the large scale kinematics, we find coherence of the asymmetric kinematics from the 50 pc H
I
cloud down to the Musca filament. We also report a strong C
18
O/
13
CO abundance drop by an order of magnitude from the filament crest to the strands over a distance <0.2 pc in a weak ambient far-ultraviolet (FUV) field.
Conclusions.
The dense Musca filament crest is a long-lived (several crossing times), dynamic structure that can form stars in the near future because of continuous mass accretion replenishing the filament. This mass accretion on the filament appears to be triggered by a H
I
cloud–cloud collision, which bends the magnetic field around dense filaments. This bending of the magnetic field is then responsible for the observed asymmetric accretion scenario of the Musca filament, which is, for instance, seen as a V-shape in the position–velocity (PV) diagram.
We present a detailed study of the Orion B molecular cloud complex (
d
~ 400 pc), which was imaged with the PACS and SPIRE photometric cameras at wavelengths from 70 to 500
μ
m as part of the
...Herschel
Gould Belt survey (HGBS). We release new high-resolution maps of column density and dust temperature for the whole complex, derived in the same consistent manner as for other HGBS regions. In the filamentary subregions NGC 2023 and 2024, NGC 2068 and 2071, and L1622, a total of 1768 starless dense cores were identified based on
Herschel
data, 490–804 (~28−45%) of which are self-gravitating prestellar cores that will likely form stars in the future. A total of 76 protostellar dense cores were also found. The typical lifetime of the prestellar cores was estimated to be
t
pre
OrionB
= 1.7
−0.6
+0.8
Myr. The prestellar core mass function (CMF) derived for the whole sample of prestellar cores peaks at ~0.5
M
⊙
(in d
N
/dlog
M
format) and is consistent with a power-law with logarithmic slope −1.27 ± 0.24 at the high-mass end, compared to the Salpeter slope of − 1.35. In the Orion B region, we confirm the existence of a transition in prestellar core formation efficiency (CFE) around a fiducial value
A
V
bg
~ 7 mag in background visual extinction, which is similar to the trend observed with
Herschel
in other regions, such as the Aquila cloud. This is not a sharp threshold, however, but a smooth transition between a regime with very low prestellar CFE at
A
V
bg
< 5 and a regime with higher, roughly constant CFE at
A
V
bg
≳ 10. The total mass in the form of prestellar cores represents only a modest fraction (~20%) of the dense molecular cloud gas above
A
V
bg
≳ 7 mag. About 60–80% of the prestellar cores are closely associated with filaments, and this fraction increases up to >90% when a more complete sample of filamentary structures is considered. Interestingly, the median separation observed between nearest core neighbors corresponds to the typical inner filament width of ~0.1 pc, which is commonly observed in nearby molecular clouds, including Orion B. Analysis of the CMF observed as a function of background cloud column density shows that the most massive prestellar cores are spatially segregated in the highest column density areas, and suggests that both higher- and lower-mass prestellar cores may form in denser filaments.
Massive dense cores (MDCs) are the high-mass equivalent of the so-called dense cores in nearby star-forming regions. With typical sizes of 0.1 pc, they could form either a few high-mass stars, ...or a cluster of low-mass stars. We present high-angular resolution continuum observations obtained with the IRAM Plateau de Bure interferometer at 1.3 and 3.5 mm towards the six most massive and youngest (IR-quiet) dense cores in the Cygnus X complex. Located at only 1.7 kpc, the Cygnus X region offers the opportunity of reaching small enough scales (of the order of 1700 AU at 1.3 mm) to separate individual collapsing objects, and thus to observe and constrain the result of the fragmentation process. The cores are sub-fragmented with a total of 23 fragments inside 5 cores. Only the most compact MDC, CygX-N63, may host a single proto-stellar object with an envelope as massive as ~60 M⊙. The fragments in the other cores have sizes and separations similar to low-mass pre-stellar condensations and Class 0 young stellar objects in nearby protoclusters, and are most probably self-gravitating objects (M > Mvir). In addition to CygX-N63, a total of 8 objects are found to be probable precursors of OB stars with their envelope masses ranging from 8.4 to 30 M⊙ inside a FWHM of 4000 AU. The level of fragmentation is globally higher than in the turbulence regulated, monolithic collapse scenario, but it is also not as high as expected in a pure gravo-turbulent scenario where the distribution of mass is dominated by low-mass protostars/stars. Here, the fractions of the total MDC masses in the high-mass proto-stellar fragments are found to be as high as 37, 58, and 100% in CygX-N12, CygX-N53, and CygX-N63, respectively. These high fractions of mass in the proto-stellar fragments are also indicative of a high efficiency of core formation in the MDCs. The increase in the core formation efficiency as a function of average density in the MDCs is proposed to be caused by the increasing importance of self-gravity leading to gravitational collapse on the scale of the MDCs. At the same time, the observed MDCs tend to fragment into a few proto-stellar objects within their central regions. We are therefore probably witnessing the primordial mass segregation of clusters. The physical origin of the fragmentation into a few high-mass objects is not yet clear, and will be investigated in the future by studying the kinematics of the MDCs.
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