Aims
To perform wastewater analyses to assess spatial differences and temporal changes of illicit drug use in a large European population.
Design
Analyses of raw wastewater over a 1‐week period in ...2012 and 2013.
Setting and Participants
Catchment areas of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) across Europe, as follows: 2012: 25 WWTPs in 11 countries (23 cities, total population 11.50 million); 2013: 47 WWTPs in 21 countries (42 cities, total population 24.74 million).
Measurements
Excretion products of five illicit drugs (cocaine, amphetamine, ecstasy, methamphetamine, cannabis) were quantified in wastewater samples using methods based on liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry.
Findings
Spatial differences were assessed and confirmed to vary greatly across European metropolitan areas. In general, results were in agreement with traditional surveillance data, where available. While temporal changes were substantial in individual cities and years (P ranging from insignificant to <10−3), overall means were relatively stable. The overall mean of methamphetamine was an exception (apparent decline in 2012), as it was influenced mainly by four cities.
Conclusions
Wastewater analysis performed across Europe provides complementary evidence on illicit drug consumption and generally concurs with traditional surveillance data. Wastewater analysis can measure total illicit drug use more quickly and regularly than is the current norm for national surveys, and creates estimates where such data does not exist.
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► A methodology was developed for the determination of 24 drugs of abuse in sewage waters. ► Quantitative analyses were performed using liquid chromatography–HR Orbitrap mass ...spectrometer. ► Compared to QqQ results, Orbitrap is almost equally sensitive. ► Accurate mass full scan data allowed retrospective analysis.
This work illustrates the potential of liquid chromatography coupled to a hybrid linear ion trap Fourier Transform Orbitrap mass spectrometer for the simultaneous identification and quantification of 24 drugs of abuse and relevant metabolites in sewage water. The developed methodology consisted of automatic solid-phase extraction using Oasis HLB cartridges, chromatographic separation of the targeted drugs, full-scan accurate mass data acquisition under positive electrospray ionization mode over an m/z range of 50–600Da at a resolution of 30,000 FWHM and simultaneous MSn measurements to obtain information of fragment ions generated in the linear ion trap. Accurate mass of the protonated molecule, together with at least one nominal mass product ion and retention time allowed the confident identification of the compounds detected in these complex matrices. In addition to the highly reliable qualitative analysis, Orbitrap analyzer also proved to have satisfactory potential for quantification at sub-ppb analyte levels, a possibility that has been very little explored in the literature until now. The limits of quantification ranged from 4 to 68ngL−1 in influent sewage water, and from 2 to 35ngL−1 in effluent, with the exception of MDA, morphine and THC that presented higher values as a consequence of the high ionization suppression in this type of samples. Satisfactory recoveries (70–120%) and precision (<30%) for the overall procedure were obtained for all compounds with the exception of meta-chlorophenylpiperazine, methylphenidate and ketamine. Isotope-labelled internal standards were added to sewage samples as surrogates in order to correct for matrix effects and also for possible losses during sample treatment. The methodology developed was applied to sewage water samples from the Netherlands (influent and effluent), and the results were compared with those obtained by LC–MS/MS with triple quadrupole. Several drugs of abuse could be identified and quantified, mainly MDMA, benzoylecgonine, codeine, oxazepam and temazepam. Orbitrap also showed potential for retrospective investigation of ketamine metabolites in the samples without the need of additional analysis.
•Wastewater analysis provided insights on drug use during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.•Speculated decrease in consumption did not occur in all cities nor for all drugs.•Measures had different effects, ...even at the regional level.•Additional and complementary data needed to fully understand the impact on drug use.
The COVID-19 outbreak has forced countries to introduce severe restrictive measures to contain its spread. In particular, physical distancing and restriction of movement have had important consequences on human behaviour and potentially also on illicit drug use and supply. These changes can be associated with additional risks for users, in particular due to reduced access to prevention and harm reduction activities. Furthermore, there have been limitations in the amount of data about drug use which can be collected due to restrictions. To goal of this study was to obtain information about potential changes in illicit drug use impacted by COVID-19 restrictions. Wastewater samples were collected in seven cities in the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain and Italy at the beginning of lockdowns (March-May 2020). Using previously established and validated methods, levels of amphetamine (AMP), methamphetamine (METH), MDMA, benzoylecgonine (BE, the main metabolite of cocaine) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH, main metabolite of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)) were measured and compared with findings from previous years. Important differences in levels of consumed drugs were observed across the considered countries. Whilst for some substances and locations, marked decreases in consumption could be observed (e.g., 50% decrease in MDMA levels compared to previous years). In some cases, similar or even higher levels compared to previous years could be found. Changes in weekly patterns were also observed, however these were not clearly defined for all locations and/or substances. Findings confirm that the current situation is highly heterogeneous and that it remains very difficult to explain and/or predict the effect that the present pandemic has on illicit drug use and availability. However, given the current difficulty in obtaining data due to restrictions, wastewater analysis can provide relevant information about the situation at the local level, which would be hard to obtain otherwise.
The present study investigates the applicability of the chemical analysis of wastewater to assess the use of doping substances by the general population and amateur athletes. To this end, an ...analytical methodology that can identify and quantify a list of 15 substances from the groups of anabolic steroids, weight loss products, and masking agents in wastewater has been developed. The method uses solid phase extraction to increase the detection sensitivity of the target analytes, expected to be present at very low concentrations (ng L
−1
range), and decrease possible matrix interferences. Instrumental analysis is performed by liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry, allowing data acquisition in both full scan and tandem MS mode. The method has been successfully validated at two concentration levels (50 and 200 ng L
−1
) with limits of quantification ranging between 0.7 and 60 ng L
−1
, intra- and inter-day precision expressed as relative standard deviation below 15%, procedural recoveries between 60 and 160% and matrix effects ranging from 45 to 121%. The stability of the analytes in wastewater was evaluated at different storage temperatures illustrating the importance of freezing the samples immediately after collection. The application of the method to 24-h composite wastewater samples collected at the entrance of three wastewater treatment plants and one pumping station while different sport events were taking place revealed the presence in wastewater, and hence the use, of the weight loss substances ephedrine, norephedrine, methylhexanamine, and 2,4-dinitrophenol. The use of these stimulants was visible just prior and during the event days and in greater amounts than anabolic steroids or masking agents.
Graphical abstract
Chemical analysis of untreated wastewater reveals the use of prohibited doping substances during amateur sport event
Analysis of wastewater with an aim of community-wide estimation of drug use is a new and very promising approach. Until now it was very difficult to determine if mass loads of studied drugs were ...actually originating from consumption, or disposal of unused drugs or production waste. This uncertainty in the estimation of community wide drugs use should not be underestimated. This paper aims to apply for the first time enantiomeric profiling in verifying sources of the presence of MDMA and amphetamine in wastewater based on a case study in two Dutch cities: Utrecht and Eindhoven. The results showed that MDMA is usually present in wastewater due to its consumption (MDMA enriched with R(−)-enantiomer). Excessively high mass loads of MDMA during a sampling campaign in Utrecht in 2011 proved to be racemic indicating direct disposal of unused MDMA possibly as a result of a police raid at a nearby illegal production facility. Enantiomeric profiling was also undertaken in order to verify the origin of unexpectedly high mass loads of amphetamine in the city of Eindhoven in 2011. Unfortunately, a distinction between consumption and direct disposal of unused amphetamine in Dutch wastewater could not be achieved. Further work will have to be undertaken to fully understand sources of amphetamine in Dutch wastewaters.
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•Enantiomeric profiling with chiral chromatography was undertaken.•Enantiomeric profiling is a useful tool for source apportionment of aberrant drug loads in sewage water.•A distinction was made between consumption and disposal of un-used drugs.•In the case of MDMA a distinction could be made whereas for amphetamine no distinction could be made yet.
A simple, fast and reliable analytical method for the determination of phosphodiesterase type V inhibitors in wastewater was developed and validated. The method was based on direct injection followed ...by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry with triple quadrupole as mass analyzer. Transformation products and analogues were included in the target list besides the three active pharmaceutical ingredients (sildenafil, vardenafil and tadalafil). The method performance was thoroughly investigated, including the analyte stability in wastewater and matrix effect. All target compounds presented linear fits between their LOD and 500ng/L. The quantification limits ranged from 1.6 to 30ng/L for all compounds except for n-octylnortadalafil (LOQ: 100ng/L); precision calculated as intraday repeatability was lower than 30%; accuracy calculated as procedural recovery ranged successfully between 85 and 105% in all cases. The method was applied to samples collected during three week-long monitoring campaigns performed in 2013, 2014 and 2015 in three Dutch cities. Only sildenafil and its two metabolites, desmethyl- and desethylsildenafil, were present with normalized loads ranging from LOQ to 8.3, 11.8 and 21.6mg/day/1000 inh, respectively. Two additional week-long sets of samples were collected in Amsterdam at the time that a festival event took place, bringing around 350,000 visitors to the city. The difference in drug usage patterns was statistically studied: “weekday” versus “weekend”, “normal” versus “atypical” week; and results discussed. The metabolite to parent drug concentration ratio evolution during consecutive years was discussed, leading to several possible explanations that should be further investigated. Finally, wastewater-based epidemiology approach was applied to back-calculate sildenafil consumption.
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•A new analytical method based on LC-MS/MS was developed and validated.•Drug usage patterns were discussed: “weekday” vs “weekend”, “normal” vs “atypical” week.•Wastewater-based epidemiology approach was successfully applied.
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•Malfunctioning of a small domestic wastewater treatment plant.•Fly-tipping of chemical waste originating from an amphetamine synthesis.•Pre-precursor of Amphetamine: APAA was ...confirmed; a route specific marker proposed.•Non-target screening was used to chemically profile wastewater.•Chemical profiles in wastewater for tracking illicit drug productions sites.
Chemical analysis of domestic wastewater can reveal the presence of illicit drugs either consumed by a population or directly discharged into the sewer system. In the search for causes of a recent malfunctioning of a small domestic wastewater treatment plant aberrantly high loads of amphetamine were observed in the influent of the plant. Direct discharges of chemical waste from illegal production sites were suspected to be the cause. Illegal manufacturing of amphetamines creates substantial amounts of chemical waste. Here we show that fly-tipping of chemical waste originating from an amphetamine synthesis in the catchment of a small sewage treatment plant resulted in failure of the treatment process. Target analysis of drugs of abuse and non-target screening using high resolution mass spectrometry provided evidence for the presence of amphetamine produced from the precursor 1-phenylpropan-2-one by the Leuckart process through specific synthesis markers. Furthermore the identity and presence of the pre-precursor 3-oxo-2-phenylbutanamide was confirmed and a route specific marker was proposed. This is the first study that demonstrates that non-target screening of wastewater can identify intermediates, impurities and by products of the synthesis routes used in illegal manufacturing of amphetamine. The profiles of chemicals thus obtained can be used in tracking productions sites within the corresponding sewer catchment.
Chemical analysis of raw wastewater in order to assess the presence of biological markers entering a wastewater treatment plant can provide objective information about the health and lifestyle of the ...population connected to the sewer system. This work was performed in a tropical country of Central America, Costa Rica, with the aim of extending this knowledge to new world regions. This work is the first to report wastewater-based epidemiological data on the use of illicit drugs in this region of the world. Composite wastewater samples from the influents of two different wastewater treatment facilities and surface water samples from surrounding areas were collected applying the best practice protocol and analysed to investigate the occurrence and fate of selected illicit drugs of abuse and pharmaceuticals. Results showed the presence of chemical indicators of the classic drugs cocaine and cannabis at high concentration levels, besides the moderate presence of the opiates codeine and morphine. Neither the worldwide commonly used psychoactive substances of abuse such as synthetic phenethylamines, nor pharmaceuticals from the family of benzodiazepines were detected, demonstrating the spatial differences in drug use among different world regions. In addition, effluent wastewater samples were analysed and compared to influent concentrations in order to evaluate the decrease in concentration of the targeted analytes through two treatment technologies. As a final step, a wide-scope qualitative screening, including hundreds of suspect compounds, was applied in order to have a better knowledge on the presence of pharmaceuticals in waters and to assess the potential impact of the treated wastewater into the receiving aquatic ecosystems.
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•Wastewater-based epidemiology first application in Central America•Key parameters assessment to apply best practice protocol•LC-HRMS analysis allowed target and suspect screening.•Cocaine and cannabis were found to be the most consumed drugs in Costa Rica.•Residues at low concentration were detected in surface water samples.
► We studied the presence and behavior of 24 drugs of abuse in communal sewage water. ► Analyses were performed using liquid chromatography coupled to a high resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometer. ► ...Samples were collected from four Dutch cities and Schiphol international airport. ► Daily variances of drug loads were demonstrated. ► Removal efficiencies were calculated for each drug and treatment plant individually.
An extensive study on the presence of illicit drugs and pharmaceuticals with potential for abuse in sewage waters was made for the first time in the Netherlands. A total number of 24 target drugs were investigated in influent and effluent wastewater using liquid chromatography coupled to a high resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometer. This powerful analyzer has allowed not only the detection and identification of the compounds under investigation, but also their quantification at very low levels, which is highly innovative in the field of drugs of abuse. Samples were taken from five sewage treatment plants (STPs) during a whole week. The selected STPs served four cities of different size and an international airport. Daily variances of drug loads were demonstrated and removal efficiencies calculated for each drug and STP individually. Twelve target compounds were found in at least one influent or effluent, and highest concentrations were observed in influents collected from more urbanized areas. The compounds more frequently detected were amphetamine, benzoylecgonine, cocaine and THCCOOH together with the pharmaceuticals codeine, oxazepam and temazepam. Established week trends in consumption of drugs showed distinct differences between individual drugs. A slightly different occurrence pattern was observed in wastewaters from the airport. Thus, methamphetamine was only detected at Schiphol, a fact that was interpreted to be caused by consumption of this drug by travelers. Despite the fact that the Netherlands has frequently been criticized for its liberal drug policy the results from this study did not reveal higher drug consumption than found elsewhere, with the exception of cannabis.
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