Interrelations of two measurement methods (cognitive versus behavioral ratings) for executive function (EF) were examined and related to reading comprehension and math calculations in fourth and ...fifth grade students (n = 93) in the context of a diverse urban student population. Relations among measures within four EF processes (working memory, planning, inhibition and shifting) were modest; relations to academics were stronger. EF measures contributed to both academic outcomes even in the context of relevant covariates (age, language and educational program). Working memory was particularly important for reading comprehension across measurement type. Cognitive measures from all EF processes, particularly inhibition and planning, and behavioral ratings of working memory were important for math.
Executive function (EF) is related to reading. However, there is a lack of clarity around (a) the relative contribution of different components of EF to different reading components (word reading, ...fluency, comprehension), and (b) how EF operates in the context of known strong language predictors (e.g., components of the simple view of reading or SVR), and other skills theoretically related to reading (e.g., vocabulary, processing speed) and/or to EF (e.g., short-term memory, motor function). In a large sample of 3rd to 5th graders oversampled for struggling readers, this paper evaluates the impact of EF derived from a bifactor model (Cirino, Ahmed, Miciak, Taylor, Gerst, & Barnes,
2018
) in the context of well-known covariates and demographics. Beyond common EF, five specific factors (two related to working memory, and factors of fluency, self-regulated learning, and behavioral inattention/metacognition) were addressed. EF consistently showed a unique contribution to already-strong predictive models for all reading outcomes; for reading comprehension, EF interacted with SVR indices (word reading and listening comprehension). The findings extend and refine our understanding of the contribution of EF to reading skill.
Objective: Executive function (EF) is a commonly used but difficult to operationalize construct. In this study, we considered EF and related components as they are commonly presented in the ...neuropsychological literature, as well as the literatures of developmental, educational, and cognitive psychology. These components have not previously been examined simultaneously, particularly with this level of comprehensiveness, and/or at this age range or with this sample size. We expected that the EF components would be separate but related, and that a bifactor model would best represent the data relative to alternative models. Method: We assessed EF with 27 measures in a large sample (N = 846) of late elementary school-age children, many of whom were struggling in reading, and who were demographically diverse. We tested structural models of EF, from unitary models to methodological models, utilizing model-comparison factor analytic techniques. We examined both a common factor as well as a bifactor structure. Results: Initial models showed strong overlap among several latent EF variables. The final model was a bifactor model with a common EF, and five specific EF factors (working memory-span/manipulation and planning; working memory-updating; generative fluency, self-regulated learning; metacognition). Conclusions: Results speak to the commonality and potential separability of EF. These results are discussed in light of prevailing models of EF and how EF might be used for structure/description, prediction, and for identifying its mechanism for relevant outcomes.
General Scientific Summary
Terms such as executive function (EF) are used in many different ways by different scientists as well as different professional and commercial interests. The present study brings together many of the ways that EF is operationalized across these literatures and other arenas. There is more commonality, but also some separability, across these different operationalizations, which has implications for its conceptualization and use.
The present study had two aims. First, we set out to evaluate the structure of processing speed in children by comparing five alternative models: two conceptual models (a unitary model, a complexity ...model) and three methodological models (a stimulus material model, an output response model, and a timing modality model). Second, we then used the resulting models to predict multiple types of reading, a highly important developmental outcome, using other well-known predictors as covariates. Participants were 844 children enrolled in third through fifth grade in urban public elementary schools who received 16 measures of processing speed that varied in the above dimensions. A two-factor complexity model that differentiated between simple and complex processing speed was the preferred model and fit the data well. Both types of PS predicted reading fluency, and complex (but not simple) PS predicted single word reading and comprehension. Results offer insight to the structure of processing speed, its relation to closely related concepts (such as executive function), and provide nuance to the understanding of the way processing speed influences reading.
Background:
Previous research has demonstrated differences in cognitive performance when baseline concussion assessment is performed in a group versus an individual setting. Accurate baseline ...assessment is imperative when such data are used to make clinical decisions regarding cognitive and symptom recovery after concussion.
Hypothesis:
The use of similar standardized test administration procedures and test conditions across group and individual settings results in no differences in cognitive performance or symptom reporting.
Study Design:
Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.
Methods:
A total of 939 participants (aged 5-18 years), including 313 tested individually and 626 tested in a group setting, matched on age, sex, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder status, were administered concussion baseline assessment using the desktop version of the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing and a new pediatric measure, the Multimodal Assessment of Cognition & Symptoms for Children. Cognitive performance, symptom reports, and rates of invalid performance were compared between settings.
Results:
No significant differences were found between individual and group testing settings for the age-based Learning and Memory Accuracy composite and Response Speed composite standard scores on the Multimodal Assessment of Cognition & Symptoms for Children. Accounting for age and sex, adolescents’ performance on the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing revealed no differences between settings on the 4 composite raw scores (Verbal Memory, Visual Memory, Visual Motor Speed, and Reaction Time). Furthermore, symptom reporting was similar between settings on both measures. Rates of invalid performance did not differ between the 2 administration groups for either age group. There was an interaction effect for invalid performance between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and setting in younger children (aged 5-12 years), with higher rates of invalid performance for children in the group setting with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared with those without, although there were no differences in the individual setting.
Conclusion:
In this sample, children given a baseline assessment in a group setting performed no differently than children tested individually when standardized administration procedures were used by trained test administrators. Previous evidence suggesting differences between settings may be attributable to the variability in test administration and supervision rather than the environment itself. The importance of standardized procedures and proper supervision during baseline concussion assessment is supported by these findings.
The primary aim of this study was to examine the structure of processing speed (PS) in middle childhood by comparing five theoretically driven models of PS. The models consisted of two conceptual ...models (a unitary model, a complexity model) and three methodological models (a stimulus material model, an output modality model, and a timing modality model). A second aim was to evaluate the utility of these models for key reading skills (single word reading, fluency, and comprehension) relevant to this age group. Participants consisted of 844 children enrolled in urban public elementary schools. Average participant age was 9.92 (SD = 0.89) and students were enrolled in 3rd (n = 186), 4th (n = 482) and 5th (n = 176) grade. Sixteen variables from 12 tasks differing in their demand characteristics captured PS. Confirmatory factor analyses and regression equations evaluated hypotheses. A two-factor Timing model (Latency and Efficiency) was the strongest fit to the data and similarly structured two-factor Complexity model (Simple and Complex) was also a good fit to the data. Both models were examined as predictors of reading skills. Only the Efficiency/Complex factors were predictive of each key reading skill when considered alone and with relevant language and demographic variables, with the exception of single word reading, where both PS latent factors were predictive in the context of covariates. The structure of PS in middle childhood was found to form a two-factor structure, and separation was apparent between a simpler and more complex level of timed processing. Additionally, PS appears to be contributory to the prediction of word single word reading, reading fluency, and reading comprehension in the context of highly relevant predictors.
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