Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is responsible for acute hepatitis in humans, through foodborne, zoonotic, and waterborne transmission routes. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of HEV in water ...matrices. Six categories were defined: untreated and treated wastewater, surface water (river, lake, and seawater), drinking water, groundwater, and other water environments (irrigation water, grey water, reservoir water, flood water, and effluent of pig slaughterhouse). We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Global Index Medicus, and Excerpta Medica Database. Study selection and data extraction were performed by at least two independent investigators. Heterogeneity (
I
2
) was assessed using the
χ
2
test on the Cochran
Q
statistic and
H
parameter. Sources of heterogeneity were explored by subgroup analysis. This study is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42021289116. We included 87 prevalence studies from 58 papers, 66.4% of which performed in Europe. The overall prevalence of HEV in water was 9.8% (95% CI 6.4–13.7). The prevalence was higher in untreated wastewater (15.1%) and lower in treated wastewater (3.8%) and in drinking water (4.7%). In surface water, prevalence was 7.4%, and in groundwater, the percentage of positive samples, from only one study available, was 8.3%. Overall, only 36.8% of the studies reported the genotype of HEV, with genotype 3 (HEV-3) prevalent (168 samples), followed by HEV-1 (148 sample), and HEV-4 (2 samples). High-income countries were the most represented with 59/87 studies (67.8%), while only 3/87 (3.5%) of the studies were performed in low-income countries. The overall prevalence obtained of this study was generally higher in industrialized countries. Risk of bias was low in 14.9% of the studies and moderate in 85.1%. The results of this review showed the occurrence of HEV in different waters environments also in industrialized countries with sanitation and safe water supplies. While HEV transmission to humans through water has been widely demonstrated in developing countries, it is an issue still pending in industrialized countries. Better knowledge on the source of pollution, occurrence, survival in water, and removal by water treatment is needed to unravel this transmission path.
Graphical Abstract
Adenoviruses (AdVs) have a significant impact in both medical and environmental contexts. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of AdV in different water types, such as ...untreated and treated wastewater, surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and other water matrices. A total of 239 articles were included in this meta-analysis. Adenoviruses were detected in various waters worldwide. The overall prevalence in water was found to be 59.2%, with the highest prevalence in untreated wastewater (83.1%) and treated wastewater (75.3%), followed by "other water matrices" (53.4%), surface water (49.5%) drinking water (22.7%), and groundwater (18.5%). Most of the studies did not assess the viability of the viruses, leading to weak links between water contamination and risk. Both human and animal AdV were found in water environments. The findings suggest that water, including drinking water, could be a significant route of AdV transmission in both developed and developing economies.
•This study aimed to assess influenza prevalence in different water environments.•Prevalence of influenza A within poultry habitats: 4.3 % to 76.4 %.•Prevalence of influenza A in migratory wild birds ...habitat: 0.4 % to 69.8 %.•Geographically: Americas 39 %, Europe 19 %, South-East Asia 2 %, Western Pacific 39 %.•Different influenza A subtypes found in poultry and wild bird habitats.
Influenza, a highly contagious acute respiratory disease, remains a major global health concern. This study aimed to comprehensively assess the prevalence of influenza virus in different aquatic environments.
Using 43 articles from four databases, we thoroughly examined water matrices from wastewater treatment plants (WTPs) and other human environments, as well as poultry habitats and areas frequented by migratory wild birds.
In WTP influents (10 studies), positivity rates for influenza A ranged from 0.0 % to 97.6 %. For influenza B (8 studies), most studies reported no positivity, except for three studies reporting detection in 0.8 %, 5.6 %, and 46.9 % of samples. Within poultry habitats (13 studies), the prevalence of influenza A ranged from 4.3 % to 76.4 %, while in environments frequented by migratory wild birds (11 studies), it ranged from 0.4 % to 69.8 %. Geographically, the studies were distributed as follows: 39.5 % from the Americas, 18.6 % from Europe, 2.3 % from South-East Asia and 39.5 % from the Western Pacific.
Several influenza A subtypes were found in water matrices, including avian influenza (H3N6, H3N8, H4N1, H4N2, H4N6, H4N8, H5N1, H5N8, H6N2, H6N6, H7N9, H0N8, and H11N9) and seasonal human influenza (H1N1 and H3N2). The existing literature indicates a crucial requirement for more extensive future research on this topic. Specifically, it emphasizes the need for method harmonization and delves into areas deserving of in-depth research, such as water matrices pertaining to pig farming and prevalence studies in low-income countries.
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