Abstract
Observations of air pollution in Krakow have shown that air quality has been improved during the last decade. In the presented study two factors affecting the physicochemical characteristic ...of PM
2.5
fraction at AGH station in Krakow were observed. One is the ban of using solid fuels for heating purposes and the second is COVID-19 pandemic in Krakow. The PM
2.5
fraction was collected during the whole year every 3rd day between 2nd March 2020 and 28th February 2021 at AGH station in Krakow. In total 110 PM
2.5
fraction samples were collected. The chemical composition was determined for these samples. The elemental analysis was performed by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) technique, ions analysis was performed by ion chromatography (IC) and black carbon by optical method. In order to identify the emission sources the positive matrix factorization (PMF) was used. The results of such study were compared to similar analysis performed for PM
2.5
for the period from June 2018 to May 2019 at AGH station in Krakow. The PM
2.5
concentration dropped by 25% in 2020/2021 in comparison to 2018/2019 at this station. The concentrations of Si, K, Fe, Zn and Pb were lowering by 43–64% in the year 2020/2021 in comparison to 2018/2019. Cu, Mn, Zn and Pb come from mechanical abrasion of brakes and tires while Ti, Fe, Mn and Si are crustal species. They are the indicators of road dust (non-exhaust traffic source). Moreover, the annual average contribution of traffic/industrial/soil/construction work source was reduced in 2020/2021 in comparison to 2018/2019. As well the annual average contribution of fuels combustion was declining by 22% in 2020/2021 in comparison to 2018/2019. This study shows that the ban and lockdown, during COVID-19 pandemic, had significant impact on the characteristic of air pollution in Krakow.
In this study, we examined the sorption of selected “chemicals of emerging concern” (CEC) on humic substances commonly found in water and municipal wastewater. These were ibuprofen, diclofenac, ...caffeine, carbamazepine, estrone, triclosan, bisphenol A, and isoproturon. The humic substances (HSs) were synthetic and not contaminated by the tested organic substances. The elemental composition and content of mineral micropollutants, gravimetric curves, and the IR spectrum of HSs were determined. We determined a relationship between the process efficiency and the characteristics of a sorbent and sorbate using the properties of organic substances sorbed on HSs. This relationship was confirmed by sorption tests on the HS complex, i.e., the HS-organic micropollutant. It has been shown that the given complexes have a greater affinity for hydrophobic surfaces than hydrophilic surfaces. To confirm the nature of the sorbent surfaces, we determined their zeta potential dependence on the pH of the solution. Studies have shown that HSs are carriers of both mineral substances and CEC in water and sewage environments.
Abstract
Particular attention is devoted to pharmaceutical residues in sewage sludge caused by their potential ecotoxicological effects. Diclofenac, ibuprofen and carbamazepine, ...17-α-ethinylestradiol, β-estradiol, were analysed in four types of fertilizers, based on sewage sludge commercial products, in compliance with Polish requirements. The release of active pharmaceutical compounds from fertilizers to water the phase after 24 h and 27 days was analysed. Solid-water partition coefficients (K
d
) and partitioning coefficient values normalized on organic carbon content (log K
OC
) were evaluated. The environmental risk to terrestrial ecosystems, due to the application of fertilizers onto soils, was estimated. Cumulative mass of pharmaceuticals emitted to water from fertilizers ranged from 0.4 to 30.8 µg/kg after 24 h contact. The greatest amount of the material that was released, over 70%, was observed for carbamazepine. No presence of compounds except ibuprofen was observed after 27 days of testing. The highest environmental risk in fertilizers is due to carbamazepine, risk quotation, RQ = 0.93 and diclofenac RQ = 0.17. The values of risk quotation estimated for soil were below RQ = 0.01. This fact means that no risk to terrestrial ecosystems is expected to occur. The important decrease of the concentrations of active compounds after passing from sewage sludge to fertilizers and to fertilized soil could be observed.
The composition and distribution of airborne particles in different locations in a salt mine were determined in terms of their origin, the distance from the air inlet, and the adaptation of ...post-mining chambers and corridors for tourists and general audience. The composition of aerosols in air was also evaluated from the perspective of human health. Air samples were collected on filters by using portable air pumps, in a historical underground salt mine in Bochnia (Poland), which is currently a touristic and recreation attraction and sanatorium. The particulate matter (PM) concentration was determined using the gravimetric method by weighing quartz filters. The content of carbon, water-soluble constituents, trace elements, and minerals was also determined. A genetic classification of the suspended matter was proposed and comprised three groups: geogenic (fragments of rock salt and associated minerals from the deposit), anthropogenic (carbon-bearing particles from tourist traffic and small amounts of fly ash, soot, and rust), and biogenic particles (occasional pollen). The total PM concentration in air varied between 21 and 79 μg/m
3
(with PM
4
constituting 4–24 μg/m
3
). The amount of atmospheric dust components coming from the surface was low and decreased with the distance from the intake shaft, thus indicating the self-cleaning process. NaCl dominated the water-soluble constituents, while Fe, Al, Ag, Mn, and Zn dominated the trace elements, with the concentration of majority of them below 30 ng/m
3
. These metals are released into air from both natural sources and the wear or/and corrosion of mining and tourists facilities in the underground functional space. No potentially toxic elements or constituents were detected. The presence of salt particles and salty spray in the atmosphere of salt mine, which may have anti-inflammatory and antiallergic properties, is beneficial to human health. This study will allow for a broader look at the potential of halotherapy in underground salt mines from a medical and regulatory point of view.
The EU directive 2013/39/EU has incorporated four biocidal compounds as priority substances: diuron, isoproturon, cybutryne, and terbutryn. The research was undertaken to determine the concentration ...of biocides in surface waters in three locations in southern Poland: the Wisła River in Kraków, the Wisłoka River in Mielec, and the drainage ditch draining water from arable fields located near Mielec. Environmental samples were taken in two series: winter (February) and spring (May and June). The analyses were carried out using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry. The seasonality of biocides in surface waters was observed. In winter samples, the concentrations were below MQL, while in spring, they ranged from a few to several dozen nanograms per liter. The highest concentrations of all analyzed compounds were recorded in water taken from the Wisła River. According to directive 2013/39/EU, the maximum allowable concentration was exceeded only in the case of cybutryne in water from the Wisła, both in May and in June. The assessment of the toxicity with the tested compounds was defined based on the Environmental Risk Assessment method. Low risk was estimated for diuron and isoproturon, while moderate risk for terbutryn and cybutryne.
Research over several years has shown that municipal engineering is an important source of humic substance formation (HS). Effluents from municipal landfills and digested sludge, due to high ...concentrations of organic pollutants, including HS and inorganic pollutants, are discharged to a biological treatment plant, where their largely non-biodegradable pollutants constitute a burden on the activated sludge and generate problems related to wastewater treatment. To demonstrate that humic substances, primarily soluble acids, are the carriers of micro-pollutants, their isolation was carried out from samples taken at different municipal management sites. The following analyses were performed: elemental composition, and the content of inorganic micropollutants, including heavy metals. In addition, the sorption affinity of pure HS to selected pharmaceuticals was investigated. The sorbed pharmaceuticals were Diclofenac and Estrone. HS commonly found in municipal engineering have been shown to be carriers of inorganic and organic micropollutants, including pharmaceuticals. Based on the study data, surface water’s primary source of micropollutants is treated municipal wastewater and fulvic acids are the transfer agent. To demonstrate the locations of HS occurrence within municipal engineering and the micropollutants they carry, their isolation was carried out from samples taken at different municipal management sites. Fulvic acids were studied due to their high mobility. Extraction was carried out according to the method recommended by the International Humic Substances Society (IHSS) with the author’s modification. The following analyses were performed: elemental composition (N, C, O, and H); the content of inorganic micropollutants, including heavy metals; and the IR spectrum. In addition, the sorption affinity of pure HS to selected pharmaceuticals was investigated. The sorbed pharmaceuticals were Diclofenac and Estrone. The study confirmed the occurrence of HS in municipal landfill effluents, activated sludge, excess and digested sludge effluents, and treated wastewater. At the same time, HS commonly found in municipal engineering have been shown to be carriers of inorganic and organic micropollutants, including pharmaceuticals.
Air quality is of large concern in the city of Krakow, southern Poland. A comprehensive study was launched by us in which two PM fractions (PM
and PM
) were sampled during 1-year campaign, lasting ...from April 21, 2018 to March 19, 2019. A suite of modern analytical methods was used to characterize the chemical composition of the collected samples. The contents of 14 sugars, sugar alcohols and anhydrosugars, 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, selected metals and non-metals and ions were analyzed, in addition to organic and elemental carbon content. The carbon isotope composition in both analysed PM fractions, combined with an isotope-mass balance method, allowed to distinguish three main components of carbonaceous emissions in the city: (1) emissions related to combustion of hard coal, (2) emissions related to road transport, and (3) biogenic emissions. The heating season emissions from coal combustion had the biggest contribution to the reservoir of carbonaceous aerosols in the PM
fraction (44%) and, together with the biogenic emission, they were the biggest contributors to the PM
fraction (41% and 44%, respectively). In the non-heating season, the dominant source of carbon in PM
and PM
fraction were the biogenic emissions (48 and 54%, respectively).
Transport is one of the most important sources of environmental pollution. More and more information has shown that one of the greatest sources of emissions from transport are emissions related to ...the release of microplastics from tyres. This is one of the most underestimated sources of emissions into the environment. In this study, environmental samples are analysed for the presence of these particles. For this purpose, optical methods and spectroscopic methods are used. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is used to identify synthetic rubber, most likely derived from car tyres. A complementary confocal microscopy method is used to confirm the FTIR results. The soil samples and road dust from the areas with heavy traffic are tested. An average of 372 ± 50 fragments per kilogram dry weight are detected in the soil samples. In the case of samples from the road, this number is 515 ± 20 fragments per kilogram of dry matter. In the samples, most of the microplastics come from tyres, which confirms the scientists’ assumptions about the amount of emissions in the environment. More than 90% of the black fragments later identified as tyre-derived synthetic rubber are found in the samples. A greater number of microplastics are found in road dust samples than in the soil. This may be due to the direct influence of braking, which causes greater accumulation of samples at the emission source than at a short distance into the soil. There is also a noticeable difference in the size of the fraction. In the case of soils, a fraction below 50 µm accounts for the majority of cases. When one analyses road dust samples, one may observe that most of the fractions are between 50 and 200 µm. This may be due to the possibility of smaller emission particles over longer distances and the greater degradation process that occurs in soils. The microplastics from the road dust are less degraded than the microplastics from the soil.
The awareness of environmental pollution has been continuously growing in recent decades and is currently reaching its maximum. Europe and most developed countries are determined to ensure safe ...breathing air for their citizens, and the measures to do so are stricter than ever before. Combustion procedures remain the primary means of producing energy and warmth in Poland. Among the notable constituents of flue gases produced as a result of fuel combustion, solid particles (or particulate matter) hold significant prominence. The paper presents the chemical characterisation of particulate matter emitted from stationary and automotive emission sources. Stationary emission sources included the combustion process of fossil fuels (soft wood, bituminous coal, ecopea coal, culm) in domestic heating units and the process of combustion of bituminous coal in a power plant. Automotive emission sources included light duty and medium duty vehicles fuelled by diesel. Exhaust toxicity tests were carried out maintaining the real conditions of PM emission. In all field measurements particulate matter was gravimetrically measured and collected on quartz or glass fibre filters. Subsequently, the content of carbonaceous fraction, inorganic ions, and metals and metalloids was analyzed using different analytical techniques. The chemical composition of the particulate matter differed depending on the emission source. With respect to stationary combustion sources, the main factors determining solid particle emission are related primarily to the fuel quality. The duty of vehicles was also a factor that influenced the chemical characterisation of the particulate matter emitted from the engines.
PM10 samples were collected at the Kraków air quality traffic monitoring station during two periods: February–May 2018 and February–June 2020. The PM10 concentrations dropped by 50% from 74 ± 29 ...µg/m3 to 37 ± 13 µg/m3 in 2018 and 2020, respectively. The elemental concentrations were determined by the energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) method, and the ion concentrations were determined by ion chromatography (IC). The concentration ratios in 2018 to 2020 were greater than 1.7 for the following elements: S, Cl, K, Zn, Br, and the ions SO42−, Na+, and NH4+. Similar concentrations were observed in 2018 and 2020 for the following chemical species: Ca, Ti, Mn, Ni, Rb, Sr, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, and PO43−. The Cr concentration was higher in 2020 compared to 2018. Four source profiles were obtained from the PMF (Positive Matrix Factorization) modelling. The following sources were attributed to this: solid fuel combustion, secondary inorganic aerosols, traffic/industry/construction work, and soil. The contributions of solid fuel combustion and secondary inorganic aerosols (SIA) were significantly lower in February and March 2020 than in February and March 2018. The relative differences were in the range 70–98%. Traffic/industry/construction work contributions were 6% and 36% lower in March and May 2020 compared to the same months in 2018, respectively. Two factors affected the characteristics of PM10: one was the ban of using coal and wood for heating purposes introduced in Krakow in September 2019, observed mainly in February and March, and the COVID-19 pandemic that was observed mainly in April and May.
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