In this paper, using Mark Schroeder’s (2008a) expressivist semantic framework for normative language as a case study, I will identify difficulties that even an expressivist semantic theory capable of ...addressing the Frege-Geach problem will encounter in handling the logical possibility of moral dilemmas. To this end, I will draw on a classical puzzle formulated by McConnell (1978) that the logical possibility of moral dilemmas conflicts with some of the prima facie plausible axioms of the standard deontic logic, which include obligation implies permission. On the tentative assumption that proponents of ethical expressivism should be generally committed to securing the logical possibility of moral dilemmas in their semantic theories, I will explore whether and how expressivists can successfully invalidate obligation implies permission within the framework developed by Schroeder. The case study eventually reveals that this can indeed be a hard task for expressivists. Generalizing from the case study, I will suggest that the source of the difficulty ultimately lies in the mentalist assumption of the expressivist semantic project that the logico-semantic relations exhibited by normative sentences should be modeled in terms of the psychological attitudes that speakers express by uttering them. My final goal will be to show that the difficulty expressivists face in dealing with the logical possibility of moral dilemmas is a reflection of the more general problem that their commitment to the mentalist assumption prevents them from flexibly adopting or dropping axioms in their semantic theories to get the right technical results.
Abstract
In both the
Treatise
and the
Enquiry
, as a naturalist philosopher Hume is committed to recognizing continuity between humans’ and other animals’ cognitive capacities. In particular, Hume ...maintains that humans share with other intelligent animals the basic psychological mechanism that underlies their capacities for causal reasoning. In this article, I will address the question whether Hume’s philosophical system can coherently attribute to animals the ability to engage in causal reasoning as he intends. First, I formulate an apparent problem for Hume that his views on causal reasoning and general thinking may seem to yield the following inconsistent triad: (1) causal reasoning requires general thinking; (2) general thinking requires language; (3) nonhuman animals lack language but can engage in causal reasoning. Then, I will develop a Humean solution to the problem by distinguishing two kinds of general thinking, which I call “level‐1” and “level‐2” general thinking, respectively. Level‐1 general thinking does not require language and must play the foundational role in Hume’s account of causal reasoning, as well as his account of language acquisition. Level‐2 general thinking, on the other hand, requires language, and it presupposes the capacity for level‐1 general thinking in several important ways.
To understand a field of volcanic activity, a survey on the Earth’s subsurface structure is helpful. In particular, a magnetotelluric survey can image the subsurface structure necessary for volcanic ...disaster prevention because it is sensitive to high-temperature areas and areas where fluid and clay minerals exist. In 3-D magnetotelluric inversion using the data observed near volcanoes and the coastline, the topography and sea around the survey area need to be considered. Therefore, constructing a mesh of the analysis area by automatically using topography and bathymetry data is necessary. Additionally, the estimated subsurface structure should be compared to the sources of variation estimated from other physical observations, such as earthquakes, ground deformation, and changes in the geomagnetic total field, for interpretation. This study introduces a simple and easy-to-operate graphical pre- and post-processor developed to support the resistivity structure analysis of a volcano and the nearby coastline. In the developed software, the pre-process indicates the mesh construction, and the post-process indicates result derivation, file construction for the sensitivity tests, and file exportation to compare the inversion results with other measured quantities. This pre- and post-process can be performed easily on the same window of the software.
Studies have presented data regarding the effects of short-term (weeks) and long-term (one year) use of standing desks in classrooms on children's health, cognition, and musculoskeletal symptoms. ...However, no previous study has examined such effects in an extremely short-term period such as one classroom lesson. This study aimed to examine the effects of using standing desks for 45 minutes on elementary school students' stress and executive function. For this experiment, 56 students were recruited from public elementary schools in Setagayaku, Tokyo, Japan. There were three conditions involving the use of standing desks (standing, sitting, and mixed), and all students performed tasks for 45 minutes in each condition. Measurements of stress and executive function were performed before and after the students engaged with each condition. Stress levels did not differ between the sitting and standing conditions for the full 45 minutes. The number of correct answers in the Stroop test, an interference task, was higher in the standing and mixed conditions (switching between standing and sitting) than in the sitting condition (interaction: F.sub.(1,37) = 3.340, p = 0.04, eta.sup.2 = 0.05). These results indicate that using standing desks for 45 minutes improved the 'inhibition' of executive function without excessively increasing stress levels.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) ratooning has attracted attention due to its higher yield potential compared with conventional methods. Here, field experiments were conducted in southwestern Japan in 2019 and ...2020 to determine the effects of cultivar (‘Takanari’, an indica cultivar, and ‘Koshihikari’, a japonica cultivar) and harvest time of the first crop (early and late) on the grain yields of the first and second crops in rice ratooning. For Koshihikari in 2019, grain yield of the second crop did not differ between harvest times. However, Takanari produced a lower grain yield at late harvest. Takanari had fewer spikelets, fewer filled spikelets, and a lower 1,000‐grain weight at late harvest. However, for Takanari in 2020, grain yield did not differ between harvest times. In 2019, the stubble nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) content did not increase from early to late harvest, whereas the stubble leaf area index (LAI) decreased between harvest times; this difference was more apparent in Takanari than in Koshihikari. Contrastingly, in 2020, the NSC content increased from early to late harvest, but the stubble LAI did not differ between harvest times. Thus, the lower grain yield of late‐harvested Takanari in 2019 might be attributed to the lower stubble LAI resulting in fewer spikelets. In contrast, the maintained grain yield from early to late harvest in 2020 might be attributed to the maintenance of spikelet numbers via the higher stubble NSC content. Therefore, the sufficient stubble LAI and NSC could be essential for improving grain yield of the second crop.
Core Ideas
Takanari produced a lower grain yield of the second crop at late harvest in 2019.
Takanari had fewer spikelets at late harvest due to the lower stubble leaf area index (LAI) in 2019.
For Takanari, grain yield of the second crop did not differ between harvest times in 2020.
Takanari did not have fewer spikelets at late harvest due to the higher nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) content in 2020.
The sufficient stubble LAI and NSC could be essential for improving grain yield.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) ratooning has attracted attention due to its higher yield potential. In the present study, a field experiment on rice ratooning using two rice genotypes, near isogenic line ...(NIL)‐GN1ATakanari and Koshihikari, was conducted in 2019 and 2020 in southwestern Japan to obtain direct evidence for the role of stubble nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) concentration and/or content per unit area on grain yield of the second crop and to determine the effectiveness of a gene producing more spikelets. NIL‐GN1ATakanari is a near isogenic line carrying an allele of GN1A, which is a gene regulating the number of spikelets per unit area derived from an indica cultivar Takanari in the genetic background of a japonica cultivar Koshihikari, and it can produce more spikelets than Koshihikari. NIL‐GN1ATakanari did not produce a higher grain yield of the first crop than Koshihikari in both years because NIL‐GN1ATakanari had more spikelets m−2 but fewer filled spikelets and a lower grain weight. NIL‐GN1ATakanari produced a lower grain yield of the second crop than Koshihikari because NIL‐GN1ATakanari had fewer spikelets m−2 due to the fewer panicles. Also, NIL‐GN1ATakanari had a lower NSC content than Koshihikari due to the lower leaf sheath plus stem weight in the stubble in 2019. Thus, the lower grain yield in the second crop of NIL‐GN1ATakanari may result from the lower NSC content in the stubble. Additionally, the ability to produce more spikelets per unit area of NIL‐GN1ATakanari was not demonstrated in ratoon crop under the condition of low NSC content in the stubble.
Core Ideas
NIL‐GN1ATakanari produced a lower grain yield of the second crop than Koshihikari.
NIL‐GN1ATakanari had fewer spikelets m−2 of the second crop than Koshihikari.
NIL‐GN1ATakanari had a lower NSC content in the stubble than Koshihikari.
The lower grain yield of NIL‐GN1ATakanari may result from the lower NSC content in the stubble.
As a cost-effective, clinician-friendly gait assessment tool, the Kinect v2 sensor may be effective for assessing lower extremity joint kinematics. This study aims to examine the validity of time ...series kinematical data as measured by the Kinect v2 on a flatland for gait assessment. In this study, 51 healthy subjects walked on a flatland while kinematic data were extracted concurrently using the Kinect and Vicon systems. The kinematic outcomes comprised the hip and knee joint angles. Parallel translation of Kinect data obtained throughout the gait cycle was performed to minimize the differences between the Kinect and Vicon data. The ensemble curves of the hip and knee joint angles were compared to investigate whether the Kinect sensor can consistently and accurately assess lower extremity joint motion throughout the gait cycle. Relative consistency was assessed using Pearson correlation coefficients. Joint angles measured by the Kinect v2 followed the trend of the trajectories made by the Vicon data in both the hip and knee joints in the sagittal plane. The trajectories of the hip and knee joint angles in the frontal plane differed between the Kinect and Vicon data. We observed moderate to high correlation coefficients of 20%–60% of the gait cycle, and the largest difference between Kinect and Vicon data was 4.2°. Kinect v2 time series kinematical data obtained on the flatland are validated if the appropriate correction procedures are performed. Future studies are warranted to examine the reproducibility and systematic bias of the Kinect v2.
We hypothesized that an individual's physique is related to reconstruction length, as organs reconstructed via the retrosternal route are curved toward the ventral side. This study aimed to determine ...factors contributing to the reconstruction length of the retrosternal route. Fifty patients underwent subtotal esophagectomy with esophagogastric reconstruction via the posterior mediastinal route between 2010 and 2014; the esophagus-stomach and posterior mediastinal route lengths were measured to evaluate whether they could be approximated. Forty patients underwent reconstruction via the retrosternal route between 2015 and 2020; the esophagus-stomach and retrosternal route lengths were compared, and contributing factors were analyzed. Each length was measured perioperatively using three-dimensional enhanced computed tomography images. The associated factors obtained included age, sex, height, body weight, body mass index, thickness and height of the thorax, depth of the thoracic inlet space, thoracic curve, left hepatic lobe volume, and the thickness and height of the liver. The length of the esophagus-stomach could approximate that of the posterior mediastinal route posterior mediastinal-esophagus-stomach; 0.04 (-0.5-0.6) cm, p = 0.77. Using three-dimensional enhanced computed tomography images, the lengths of the esophagus-stomach and retrosternal routes were comparable, despite variability retrosternal-esophagus-stomach; 0.72 (-0.1-1.8) cm, p = 0.095. Analyzing factors associated with the length revealed a positive correlation of body weight, body mass index, and thickness of the thorax with the difference. A higher body mass index (OR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.1-2.8, p = 0.007) was associated with a longer retrosternal route in the multivariate analysis. An individual's physique is associated with the reconstruction length; particularly, the length of the retrosternal route was longer in patients with a high body mass index.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) ratooninghas recently attracted attention due to its higher yield potential compared with that of conventional methods. Field experiments were conducted in southwestern Japan ...in 2019 and 2020 to determine the effect of rice type (Hokuriku 193 and high‐yielding line HYL) and stubble leaf treatment (clipping and control) on the grain yields of the first and second crops in rice ratooning. In 2019, both rice types produced lower grain yields of the second crop in the leaf clipping treatment than the control treatment due to the lower spikelet number m−2. Therefore, increasing the leaf area index (LAI) in the stubble may improve the grain yield of the second crop by increasing the spikelet number per area. In 2020, HYL produced a lower grain yield of the second crop in the leaf clipping treatment than the control treatment due to the lower spikelet number m−2. However, the grain yields of Hokuriku 193 did not differ between the two leaf clipping treatments. Although the nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) content in the stubble did not differ between the two rice types in 2019, Hokuriku 193 had a higher NSC content than HYL in 2020 due to the lower spikelet number m−2 and lower percentage of filled spikelets of the first crop. These results suggest that the stubble leaf blade contribution may be reduced when the NSC content is high as the leaf blades may compensate for the lack of NSC content when the NSC content is low.
Core Ideas
Stubble leaf blades contribute to the spikelet number per area.
Stubble leaf blades compensate for low stubble nonstructural carbohydrate content.
Early maturing cultivars are recommended to avoid lower grain filling.
We prepared model polyethylene (PE) samples that contain the controlled-amounts of the high-molecular-weight component by blending a monodispersed PE into a polydispersed PE, to elucidate the ...influence of the high-molecular-weight component of a polymer on its mechanical properties. The strength and strain-hardening modulus were significantly enhanced by the addition of a monodispersed PE of sufficiently high molecular weight, and the critical value of Mw was determined to be ~3.0 × 105. The improved strength and strain-hardening modulus are attributed to higher amounts of inter-cluster links that bridge adjacent lamellar cluster units because these links act as stress transmitters between these units.
Display omitted
•Model polyethylene (PE) samples with different shapes of molecular weight distribution were prepared by blending mono- and polydispersed PEs.•The strength and strain-hardening modulus were enhanced by adding a high-molecular-weight component with Mw > 3.0 × 105.•The improvement of tensile properties is attributed to larger amounts of inter-cluster links, which act as stress transmitters between lamellar cluster units.
PDF
