Comparison processes are critical to social judgments, yet little is known about how individuals compare people other than themselves in daily life (social-judgment comparisons). The present research ...employed a 7-day experience-sampling design (Nparticipants = 93; Nsurveys = 3,960) with end-of-week and 6-month follow-ups, to examine how individuals make social-judgment comparisons in daily life as well as the cumulative impact of these comparisons over time. Participants compared close (vs. distant) contacts more frequently and made more downward than upward comparisons. Furthermore, downward, relative to upward, comparisons predicted more positive perceptions of the contact, greater closeness to the contact, and greater relationship satisfaction. More frequent downward comparisons involving a particular contact also predicted greater closeness 1 week and 6 months later. When participants made upward comparisons, they were motivated to protect close, but not distant, contacts by downplaying domain importance, and engaging in this protective strategy predicted greater closeness to the contact 1 week later.
Social comparisons in the context of close relationships occur often in daily life. Yet, limited research has examined the various types of comparisons that can occur in relationships and the ...interpersonal consequences of these comparisons. I first describe the types of comparisons individuals can make in close relationships (between themselves and a close other, between their relationship and another, and between a close other and another person) and the interpersonal consequences of these comparisons. I then discuss how examining comparisons in close relationships leads to new ways of thinking about social comparisons: Comparisons have a greater reach than previously thought (dyadic and cumulative longitudinal effects of comparisons), they are more complex than simply comparing the self to others, and they influence relationship outcomes and reveal processes that have not yet been examined. These new insights and directions demonstrate how this intrapersonal process has important interpersonal consequences.
Abstract
Experience sampling methods allow researchers to examine phenomena in daily life and provide various advantages that complement traditional laboratory methods. However, existing experience ...sampling methods may be costly, require constant Internet connectivity, may not be designed specifically for experience sampling studies, or require a custom solution from a computer programming consultant. In this article, we present ExperienceSampler, an open-source scaffold for creating experience-sampling smartphone apps designed for Android and iOS devices. We designed ExperienceSampler to address the common barriers to using experience sampling methods. First, there is no cost to the user. Second, ExperienceSampler apps make use of local notifications to let participants know when to complete surveys and store the data locally until Internet connection is available. Third, our app scaffold was designed with experience sampling methodological issues in mind. We also demonstrate how researchers can easily customize ExperienceSampler even if they have no programming skills. Furthermore, we evaluate the utility of ExperienceSampler apps with results from one social psychological study conducted using ExperienceSampler (N = 168). Mean response rates averaged 84%, and the median response latency was 9 minutes. Taken together, ExperienceSampler creates cost-effective smartphone apps that can be easily customized by researchers to examine experiences in daily life.
Translational Abstract
Researchers are able to capture human behavior as it unfolds in daily life using a method called experience sampling. Experience sampling is used to "sample" from participant "experiences" by asking them to complete short surveys throughout the day. Although experience sampling has become increasingly popular with the rise of smartphones, there are obstacles to doing research with experience sampling (e.g., high costs, dependence on cellular or Internet connectivity, limited to one type of smartphone). This article presents a method for creating customized smartphone apps for experience sampling, called ExperienceSampler. We provide a practical guide to the software and services needed to setup and implement an ExperienceSampler app, an overview of our online tutorial (www.experiencesampler.com) for using ExperienceSampler, and initial evidence regarding the effectiveness of an experience sampling study conducted with an ExperienceSampler app (e.g., participant compliance, mean response rate). By introducing ExperienceSampler, we hope to remove barriers that prevent researchers from conducting experience sampling studies; experience sampling studies provide valuable insights into how behavioral processes unfold within each person in a variety of daily contexts and thus help researchers develop better theories informed by high-resolution data.
Cross-relationship comparisons are an integral part of relationship processes, yet little is known about the impact of these comparisons in daily life. The present research employed a dyadic ...experience-sampling methodology (N = 78 couples) with end-of-day surveys, end-of-week follow-up, and a 6-month follow-up to examine how individuals make cross-relationship comparisons in daily life, the cumulative impact of these comparisons over time, and the dyadic consequences of such comparisons. Participants made more downward than upward comparisons; however, upward comparisons had a more lasting impact, resulting in decreased satisfaction and optimism, and less positive self-perceptions and partner perceptions, at the end of each day and the week. Individuals who made more upward comparisons were also less satisfied 6 months later. Individuals were also affected by their partner’s comparisons: On days when partners made more upward comparisons, they felt less satisfied and optimistic about their relationship and less positive about themselves and their partner.
Comparing You = Comparing Me Thai, Sabrina; Lockwood, Penelope
Personality & social psychology bulletin,
07/2015, Volume:
41, Issue:
7
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
We examine whether individuals respond to comparisons involving romantic partners as they would to comparisons involving the self. Four studies (N = 2,210) using recalled (Studies 1-3) and actual ...(Study 4) comparisons about attractiveness (Study 1) and relationship skills (Studies 2-4) demonstrated that individuals high in self-other overlap decrease domain relevance following upward but not downward comparisons to protect their positive partner perceptions. This strategy was absent among those low in self-other overlap. Study 2 demonstrated that this effect extends to best friends, but not casual friends, due to the degree of self-other overlap. Furthermore, when reminded of their partner’s inferiority in a domain, high overlap participants maintained positive global partner perceptions, whereas low overlap participants’ global perceptions were negatively affected (Study 3). These results suggest that individuals do experience partner-other comparisons as if they were directly involved, but only if their partner is incorporated into their self-identity.
Although past research has shown that social comparisons made through social media contribute to negative outcomes, little is known about the nature of these comparisons (domains, direction, and ...extremity), variables that determine comparison outcomes (post valence, perceiver's self-esteem), and how these comparisons differ from those made in other contexts (e.g., text messages, face-to-face interactions). In 4 studies (N = 798), we provide the first comprehensive analysis of how individuals make and respond to social comparisons on social media, using comparisons made in real-time while browsing news feeds (Study 1), experimenter-generated comparisons (Study 2), and comparisons made on social media versus in other contexts (Studies 3 and 4). More frequent and more extreme upward comparisons resulted in immediate declines in self-evaluations as well as cumulative negative effects on individuals' state self-esteem, mood, and life satisfaction after a social media browsing session. Moreover, downward and lateral comparisons occurred less frequently and did little to mitigate upward comparisons' negative effects. Furthermore, low self-esteem individuals were particularly vulnerable to making more frequent and more extreme upward comparisons on social media, which in turn threatened their already-lower self-evaluations. Finally, social media comparisons resulted in greater declines in self-evaluations than those made in other contexts. Together, these studies provide the first insights into the cumulative impact of multiple comparisons, clarify the role of self-esteem in online comparison processes, and demonstrate how the characteristics and impact of comparisons on social media differ from those made in other contexts.
Facial impressions (e.g., trustworthy, intelligent) vary considerably across different perceivers and targets. However, nearly all existing research comes from participants evaluating faces on a ...computer screen in a lab or office environment. We explored whether social perceptions could additionally be influenced by perceivers’ experiential factors that vary in daily life: mood, environment, physiological state, and psychological situations. To that end, we tracked daily changes in participants’ experienced contexts during impression formation using experience sampling. We found limited evidence that perceivers’ contexts are an important factor in impressions. Perceiver context alone does not systematically influence trait impressions in a consistent manner—suggesting that perceiver and target idiosyncrasies are the most powerful drivers of social impressions. Overall, results suggest that perceivers’ experienced contexts may play only a small role in impressions formed from faces.
As the United States grows more racially diverse, it is imperative to understand whether being in a racially diverse environment impacts conversations about race. This study examines whether exposure ...to, and interactions with racially diverse others relate to whether people talk about race, the frequency with which people talk about race, and their comfort with doing so within the racially diverse context of Hawaii. We employed experience sampling to measure whether people had conversations about race, how frequently conversations about race occurred and their comfort in those conversations, and whether their exposure to and interactions with racially diverse others predicted these behaviors. Exposure to and interactions with racially diverse others were not significant predictors of race-related conversations (and their comfort with said conversations). However, interactions with racially diverse friends was related to greater likelihood of discussing race, more frequent discussions of race, and more comfort with race-related conversations. These findings illustrate the importance that interactions with cross-race friends have for improving intergroup relations.
People of color cope with racial stigma daily. In this context, support and acceptance from people who share similar racial/ethnic backgrounds can take a special importance. In two studies, using a ...national U.S. sample (n = 1618) and a term‐long weekly‐diary design (n = 103), Black, Latine, and Asian students received more support and acceptance from close same‐race (vs. interracial) relationships. Compared to White participants, Black and Latine participants reported greater support and acceptance from their relationships. Furthermore, greater support and acceptance in same‐race relationships predicted greater flourishing and lower depressive affect, even after controlling for support and acceptance in interracial relationships. These results underscore the importance of same‐race relationships for people of color in the U.S. In conjunction with practices addressing structural barriers, opportunities to connect with same‐race peers can nurture the flourishment of people of color in the U.S. and possibly other contexts in which they are stigmatized.
With the onset of COVID-19, governments around much of the world implemented strict social distancing and stay-at-home orders that profoundly affected the amount of time many couples were spending ...together. In the present research, we examined whether perceptions of a change in time spent with a partner were associated with stress, and whether stress levels in turn predicted relationship commitment and satisfaction, both in the short term (Time 1) and longer term (Time 2; i.e., after 10 months). Results indicated partial mediation, such that less (vs. more) time spent with the partner was associated with greater stress at Time 1, which in turn partly accounted for lower commitment and relationship satisfaction both at Time 1, and satisfaction at Time 2. Less (vs. more) time spent with partner at Time 1 also predicted a greater likelihood of relationship dissolution at Time 2, again partially mediated by stress. An increase in quality time spent together at Time 2 predicted stress and relationship outcomes over and above the change in time spent together more generally. This research has important implications for understanding the ongoing effects of the pandemic on romantic relationships. In addition, this study provides new evidence regarding how changes in time spent with a partner are associated with stress and subsequent relationship outcomes.
PDF
