Objective
The aim of this paper was to synthesize the experimental research on factors that affect takeover performance during conditionally automated driving.
Background
For conditionally automated ...driving, the automated driving system (ADS) can handle the entire dynamic driving task but only for limited domains. When the system reaches a limit, the driver is responsible for taking over vehicle control, which may be affected by how much time they are provided to take over, what they were doing prior to the takeover, or the type of information provided to them during the takeover.
Method
Out of 8446 articles identified by a systematic literature search, 48 articles containing 51 experiments were included in the meta-analysis. Coded independent variables were time budget, non-driving related task engagement and resource demands, and information support during the takeover. Coded dependent variables were takeover timing and quality measures.
Results
Engaging in non-driving related tasks results in degraded takeover performance, particularly if it has overlapping resource demands with the driving task. Weak evidence suggests takeover performance is impaired with shorter time budgets. Current implementations of information support did not affect takeover performance.
Conclusion
Future research and implementation should focus on providing the driver more time to take over while automation is active and should further explore information support.
Application
The results of the current paper indicate the need for the development and deployment of vehicle-to-everything (V2X) services and driver monitoring.
Objective
To measure the looming threshold for when drivers perceive closing and an immediate hazard and determine what factors affect these thresholds.
Background
Rear-end collisions are a common ...type of crash. One key issue is determining when drivers first perceive they need to react. The looming threshold for closing and an immediate hazard are critical perceptual thresholds that reflect when drivers perceive they need to react.
Method
Two driving simulator experiments examined whether engaging in a cell phone conversation and whether the complexity of the roadway environment affect these thresholds for the perception of closing and immediate hazard. Half of the participants engaged in a cognitive task, the last letter task, to emulate a cell phone conversation, and all participants experienced both simple and complex roadway environments.
Results
Drivers perceived an immediate hazard later when engaged in a cell phone conversation than when not engaged in a conversation but only when the driving task was relatively less demanding (e.g., simple roadway, slow closing velocity). Compared to simple scenes, drivers perceived closing and an immediate hazard later for complex scenes but only when closing velocity was 30 mph (48.28 km/h) or greater.
Conclusion
Cell phone conversation can affect when drivers perceive an immediate hazard when the roadway is less demanding. Roadway complexity can affect when drivers perceive closing and an immediate hazard when closing velocity is high.
Application
Results can aid accident analysis cases and the design of driving automation systems by suggesting when a typical driver would respond.
Teamwork, communication, and workload issues continue to contribute to patient safety events. The authors developed a diagnostic mixed methods toolkit combining a behavior observation tool, ...semistructured interview guide, and surveys to proactively identify relevant gaps. Applied across 14 units at three hospitals, this toolkit yielded 344 findings with 156 associated recommendations and took, on average, four days of observation. On a scale from 1 (not at all helpful) to 6 (substantially helpful), leaders indicated that the assessment and its recommendations were very helpful (median 5, interquartile range 5-6, 34 survey respondents, 47.9% individual-level response rate, 85.7% unit-level response rate). Integrating this tool into a broader safety strategy can help inform organizational improvement efforts.
Training Users to Identify Phishing Emails Weaver, Bradley W.; Braly, Adam M.; Lane, David M.
Journal of educational computing research,
10/2021, Volume:
59, Issue:
6
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Phishing emails pose a serious threat to individuals and organizations. Users’ ability to identify phishing emails is critical to avoid becoming victims of these attacks. The current study examined ...the effectiveness of a short online phishing training program designed to help users identify phishing emails. Half of the participants were in the training group and the other half worked on a control filler task. The training group’s sensitivity (d′) at correctly classifying emails as legitimate or phishing increased by 1.14 whereas the control group’s sensitivity increased by only 0.48. This difference in d' changes was significant, t(38) = 2.05, p = .048. This improvement in performance was likely due to users learning how to check reliable cues and interpret them. Despite a sizeable improvement in detecting phishing emails, the training group correctly classified only about two-thirds of phishing emails. Accordingly, a short training program appears beneficial, but a more comprehensive training program would be needed to reduce vulnerability to an acceptable level.
Despite ample research on the effects of cell phone conversations on driving, the effects of such conversations on the looming threshold for an immediate hazard are not known. Prior research on the ...looming threshold for an immediate hazard in the absence of cell phone conversation indicated that the rate of optical expansion at threshold was .006 radians per second. We measured the rate of optical expansion and headway distance at first driving input when participants encountered a stopped lead vehicle while completing a car-following task. Half of them concurrently completed the Last Letter Task, a cognitive task that emulates a cell phone conversation. When compared to the second, third, and fourth scenario exposures to the stopped lead vehicle, the participant’s response on the first scenario exposure occurred when the lead vehicle’s optical expansion rate was relatively smaller and headway distance was larger. However, this effect of scenario exposure occurred only when drivers were engaged in a cell phone conversation. Additionally, participants started to initiate a response when the rate of optical expansion was much lower than the looming threshold reported in previous research. Our results indicate that the first driver input, as operationalized in the current study, does not indicate when drivers first perceive an immediate hazard.
•Nurses have to balance competing priorities such as patient stability, patient comfort, and IPC-concerns with the limited resources (e.g., staff, supplies, time) available to them.•Our results ...suggest patient stability and patient comfort were, on average, higher priorities for task sequencing than infection prevention.•Future research should examine whether more immediate and salient feedback about when contamination has been spread reduces contamination spread.
Better understand how and why nurses sequence their patient care tasks.
Workflow mitigation strategies, such as working clean to dirty, could help reduce cross-contamination. However, the extent to which priorities, other than infection prevention concerns, influence the sequence of patient care tasks is poorly understood.
We had nurses perform high fidelity simulations of patient care tasks that incorporated common barriers to practicing infection prevention, such as time pressure, high workload, and interruptions. We assigned nurses patient care tasks that were either high or low in patient-infection risk and either high or low in dirtiness; a two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze the effect of these two factors on the order in which nurses completed the tasks. We used a cued-retrospective think-aloud to elicit why participants sequenced the tasks the way they did; open and closed card sorts were used to analyze this data.
On average, participants completed low patient-infection risk, high dirtiness tasks first followed by low dirtiness tasks (regardless of patient-infection risk) and then finally high patient-infection risk, high dirtiness tasks. Analysis of the think-alouds suggest patient stability and patient comfort were, on average, higher priorities for task sequencing than infection prevention.
Healthcare workers have to balance competing priorities such as patient stability, patient comfort, and infection prevention concerns with the limited resources (e.g., staff, supplies, time) available to them. Future research examining how different task sequence approaches might affect these priorities would help inform how healthcare workers could sequence their tasks.
•Drivers perceived closing sooner for larger headlight configurations except when the headlight configurations were relatively small, in which case the effect of headlight size was attenuated.•A ...motorcycle headlight configuration that accentuates the full height of a motorcycle and its rider (its longer dimension) might result in sooner perceptual judgments of closing.•Future research should aim to further develop the evidence accumulation model.
The aims were to better understand how drivers perceive an approaching set of motorcycle headlights during nighttime driving and to determine whether alternative motorcycle headlight configurations improve drivers’ perceptual judgments of closing for an oncoming motorcycle.
Motorcyclists account for a disproportionate number of roadway fatalities, especially at night. One potential cause of this is drivers’ misjudgments of a motorcycle’s approach.
The first experiment examined whether drivers were more sensitive to horizontal or vertical optical expansion and whether drivers could integrate these two dimensions to achieve a lower looming threshold. A second experiment built on these results to test whether alternative headlight configurations that maximized size were better than other motorcycle headlight configurations and a car’s headlights. In both experiments, participants were instructed to press a button to indicate when they first perceived an oncoming vehicle to be closing under nighttime driving conditions.
Headlight orientation did not affect when drivers perceived closing, and drivers were not able to integrate optical expansion from multiple dimensions in a way that achieves a lower looming threshold. However, the alternative motorcycle headlight configurations that accentuated the full extent of a motorcycle’s size resulted in drivers perceiving closing sooner than other motorcycle headlight configurations but not sooner than a car.
Drivers perceive closing sooner for larger headlight configurations except when the headlight configurations are relatively small, in which case the effect of headlight size is attenuated.
Drivers’ perceptual judgments of motorcycles may improve when motorcycles have headlights that span its full height.
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