•Data revealed a positive influence of skills in rock climbing on ice climbing performance.•Experienced rock climbers showed the highest range and variability of limb angular locations and ...coordination patterns.•Experienced rock climbers showed the highest vertical displacement on the ice fall, and remained stationary for the shortest periods during ascent.•Experienced rock climbers perceived information from the environment to coordinate climbing actions.
This study explored how skills in one region of a perceptual-motor landscape of performance, created in part by previous experience in rock climbing, can shape those that emerge in another region (ice climbing). Ten novices in rock climbing and five intermediate rock climbers were observed climbing an icefall. Locations of right and left ice tools and crampons were videotaped from a frontal camera. Inter-individual variability of upper and lower limb couplings and types of action regarding icefall properties were assessed by cluster hierarchical analysis, distinguishing three clusters. Pelvis vertical displacement, duration and number of pelvis pauses were also analyzed. Experienced rock climbers were grouped in the same cluster and showed the highest range and variability of limb angular locations and coordination patterns, the highest vertical displacement and the shortest pelvis plateaux durations. Non-fluent climbers (clusters 2 and 3) showed low range and variability of limb angular locations and coordination patterns. In particular, climbers of cluster 3 exhibited the lowest vertical displacement, the longest plateaux durations and the greatest ratio between tool swinging and definitive anchorage. Our results exemplified the positive influence of skills in rock climbing on ice climbing performance, facilitated by the detection of affordances from environmental properties.
Climbing and mountaineering sports are gaining more and more public interest. This chapter reviews scientific studies on injuries and accidents in climbing and mountaineering sports to evaluate the ...danger of these sports and their specific injuries and preventive measures. An initial PubMed query was performed using the key words 'rock climbing', 'sport climbing', 'mountaineering', 'alpine injuries' and 'climbing injuries'. More than 500 extracted papers were analyzed which gave information on injury, mortality/fatality, prevention and risk factors. Cross-references were also scanned according to the above given criteria. Also the data sources of the UIAA and IFSC Medical Commissions were analyzed. Overall, alpine (traditional) climbing has a higher injury risk than sport climbing, especially indoor climbing. Alpine and ice climbing have more objective dangers which can affect climber safety. Overall injury rates are low, nevertheless fatalities do occur in all climbing disciplines. Altitude-related illnesses/injuries also occur in mountaineering. Most injuries in sport climbing are overstrain injuries of the upper extremity. In alpine climbing, injuries mostly occur through falls which affect the lower extremity. Objective reporting of the injury site and severity varied in most studies according to the injury definition and methodology used. This creates differences in the injury and fatality results and conclusions, which in turn makes inter-study comparisons difficult. In future studies, the UIAA MedCom score for mountain injuries should be used to guarantee inter-study comparability. Evidence in preventive measures is low and further studies must be performed in this field.
This study sought to investigate the vertical distribution pattern of the soil faunal community in a low-altitude mountain area. On 8 July 2022, a low hill was selected as the study area, and soil ...arthropods were collected through traps. The leaf litter, vegetation type, and distribution quantity of each sampling site were investigated while the soil faunae were collected. In addition, the soil’s physical and chemical parameters were measured. The results of a one-way ANOVA showed that there were significant differences (p < 0.05) in the soil properties, leaf litter, and plant quantities at different altitudes within the research area. A total of 1086 soil arthropods, belonging to five classes and ten orders, were collected during the study period. The dominant species of soil arthropods at different altitudes were significantly different. The dominant species in low-altitude areas were Armadillidium sp. and Aethus nigritus. However, Eupolyphaga sinensis and Philodromidae were the dominant species in high-altitude areas. The results of a non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis showed that the soil faunae at different altitudes were clustered into two communities: a high-altitude community and a low-altitude community. With the increase in altitude, the species richness of the soil arthropods gradually decreased, and their abundance showed a decreasing trend. A redundancy analysis (RDA) of the soil arthropods and environmental factors showed that soil moisture (p < 0.01), pH (p < 0.01) and defoliation (p < 0.05) had significant effects on the distribution of the soil fauna. The results of a Pearson correlation analysis indicated that different environmental factors had interactive effects on the distribution of the soil arthropods. The quantity and species richness of the soil arthropods in different sample lines were tested using a variance analysis. The results showed that there were significantly smaller quantities of soil arthropods in the sampling line closer to the trekking ladder. This indicates that human tourism, namely mountaineering activities, had a direct impact on the soil fauna. This study can provide a reference for and data support in the development of biodiversity conservation measures for forest parks in low mountain areas.
As smartphone use continues to become more embedded within daily life, identifying the factors driving their use in extreme environments may have numerous meaningful implications. Little is currently ...known about mountaineers' intentions to use smartphones in high-alpine environments. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control predicted mountaineers' intentions to use smartphones in high-alpine environments. A sample of 167 mountaineers from 37 countries completed a brief questionnaire about their intentions to use smartphones during their next high-alpine expedition. A series of multiple regression analyses were used to determine the salient beliefs influencing mountaineers' smartphone use in high-alpine environments. The study findings provide a better understanding of the potential factors driving mountaineers' use of smartphones. More broadly, these findings add to the growing body of literature regarding smartphone use in extreme environments.
Level of ability within rock climbing is generally expressed in terms of a "best ascent", rated using various grading systems within the sport. The most common method of obtaining this information is ...via self-report. The aim of this study was to examine the validity of self-reported climbing grades. Twenty-nine competitive rock climbers (17 males, 12 females) were first asked to report their current (defined as within the last 12 months) best on-sight lead ascent grade (Aus/NZ). The participants then climbed a specifically designed indoor route, under on-sight conditions (one attempt, no route practice or preview), to obtain an assessed grade. The route increased in difficulty, and was such that the distance achieved by the climber corresponded to a particular grade. The mean (±standard deviation) self-reported and assessed grade was 22.6 ± 3.4 and 22.0 ± 3.0 (Aus/NZ) respectively. Despite slight over- and underestimations in males and females respectively, there was no statistically significant difference between self-reported and assessed on-sight climbing grades. The results of this study suggest that self-reported climbing grades provide a valid and accurate reflection of climbing ability.
Although the European Alps now have more than 1000 via ferratas, limited data exist on the actual incidence of fatal events in via ferratas and their causes. This retrospective study analysed data ...from a registry maintained by the Austrian Alpine Safety Board (
= 161,855, per 11 September 2019). Over a 10-year period from 1 November 2008 to 31 October 2018, all persons involved in a via ferrata-related emergency were included (
= 1684), of which 64% were male. Most emergencies were caused by blockage due to exhaustion and/or misjudgement of the climber's own abilities. Consequently, more than half of all victims were evacuated uninjured. Only 62 (3.7%) via ferrata-related deaths occurred. Falling while climbing unsecured was the most common cause of death, and males had a 2.5-fold higher risk of dying in a via ferrata accident. The mortality rate was highest in technically easy-to-climb sections (Grade A, 13.2%/B, 4.9%), whereas the need to be rescued uninjured was highest in difficult routes (Grade D, 59.9%/E, 62.7%). Although accidents in via ferratas are common and require significant rescue resources, fatal accidents are rare. The correct use of appropriate equipment in technically easy-to-climb routes can prevent the majority of these fatalities.
Objectives As the highest peak on the planet, Mt Everest provides a truly austere environment in which to practice medicine. We examined records of all visits to the Everest Base Camp Medical Clinic ...(Everest ER) to characterize the medical problems that occur in these patients. Methods A retrospective analysis of medical records from the first 10 years of operation (2003 to 2012) was performed. Results Medical reasons accounted for 85.3% (3045) of diagnoses, whereas 14.0% (500) were for trauma. The most common medical diagnoses were pulmonary causes such as high altitude cough and upper respiratory infection, comprising more than 38% of medical diagnoses. For traumatic diagnoses, 56% were for dermatologic causes, most commonly for frostbite and lacerations. Pulmonary and dermatologic diagnoses were also the most frequent causes for evacuation from Everest Base Camp, most commonly for high altitude pulmonary edema and frostbite, respectively. Conclusions Medical professionals treating patients at extreme altitude should have a broad scope of practice and be well prepared to deal with serious trauma from falls, cold exposure injuries, and altitude illness.
This study aims to compare maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max), blood volume (BV), hemoglobin mass (Hbmass), and brachial endothelial function, measured as flow-mediated dilatation (FMD), in ...international-level endurance athletes primarily exercising with the whole body (cross-country skiing), lower body (orienteering), or upper body (flatwater kayak).
Seventeen cross-country skiers, 15 orienteers, and 11 flatwater kayakers were tested for V˙O2max, BV, Hbmass, and FMD. Additionally, body composition and annual training (type, volume, and intensity of training) were analyzed.
Absolute and body-mass-normalized V˙O2max values were 11.3% and 9.9% higher, respectively, in skiers (5.83 ± 0.60 L·min and 77.9 ± 4.2 mL·min·kg) compared to orienteers (5.24 ± 0.45 L·min and 70.9 ± 3.5 mL·min·kg) (P < 0.01), whereas kayakers (5.78 ± 0.56 L·min and 73.7 ± 6.3 mL·min·kg) did not differ from skiers. BV was 9.9%-11.8% higher in skiers and orienteers compared to kayakers when normalized for total body mass and fat-free mass, and skiers had 9.2% and 9.9% higher Hbmass normalized for total body mass and fat-free mass compared to kayakers (all P < 0.05). Arterial diameter was 11.8%-15.0% larger in kayakers (4.38 ± 0.63 mm) and skiers (4.22 ± 0.36 mm) compared to orienteers (3.81 ± 0.32 mm) (P < 0.05), whereas FMD did not differ between groups.
This study indicates that higher V˙O2max in cross-country skiers and greater arterial diameters in the arms of skiers and kayakers are sport-specific physiological adaptations to chronic endurance training in whole-body and upper-body exercise modes. However, variations in these variables are not associated with BV or Hbmass.
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