Reducing food losses and waste is considered to be one of the most promising measures to improve food security in the coming decades. Food losses also affect our use of resources, such as freshwater, ...cropland, and fertilisers. In this paper we estimate the global food supply losses due to lost and wasted food crops, and the resources used to produce them. We also quantify the potential food supply and resource savings that could be made by reducing food losses and waste. We used publically available global databases to conduct the study at the country level.
We found that around one quarter of the produced food supply (614kcal/cap/day) is lost within the food supply chain (FSC). The production of these lost and wasted food crops accounts for 24% of total freshwater resources used in food crop production (27m3/cap/yr), 23% of total global cropland area (31×10−3ha/cap/yr), and 23% of total global fertiliser use (4.3kg/cap/yr). The per capita use of resources for food losses is largest in North Africa & West-Central Asia (freshwater and cropland) and North America & Oceania (fertilisers). The smallest per capita use of resources for food losses is found in Sub-Saharan Africa (freshwater and fertilisers) and in Industrialised Asia (cropland). Relative to total food production, the smallest food supply and resource losses occur in South & Southeast Asia.
If the lowest loss and waste percentages achieved in any region in each step of the FSC could be reached globally, food supply losses could be halved. By doing this, there would be enough food for approximately one billion extra people. Reducing the food losses and waste would thus be an important step towards increased food security, and would also increase the efficiency of resource use in food production.
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► Losses of food supply and related resources were studied at a global scale. ► Around 1/4 of the produced food (in terms of kcal) is lost in the food supply chain. ► 23–24% of total use of water, cropland and fertilisers are used to produce losses. ► Around half of the losses could be prevented with a more efficient supply chain. ► One billion extra people could be fed if food crop losses could be halved.
The current study presents the first nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) footprints calculator for Sub-Saharan Africa during 1961–2017 using an adjusted N-Calculator model, by calculating two sets of ...virtual N factors (VNFs) or virtual P factors (VPFs): one for fertilized farms and one for unfertilized farms. We furthermore calculated the future food footprints of N (NF) and P (PF) under five scenarios include: 1) business as usual BAU, 2) achieve an equitable diet (EqD) while the plant N and P uptake and all other food losses would be constant at 2017 level S1, 3) follow the EqD without any changes in plant N and P uptake, but the current ratio of other food losses would increase by 50% S2, 4) follow the EqD with a 5% less in plant N and P uptake than the current ratio, and the current ratio of other food losses would increase by 50% S3, and 5) follow the EqD with a 10% greater in plant N and P uptake than the current ratio, while the current ratio of other food losses would decrease by 50% S4. NF (kg N cap−1 yr−1) and PF (kg P cap−1 yr−1) increased from 6.7 and 1.1 to 8.3 and 1.5 during 1961–2017, respectively. The national NF (Tg N yr−1) and PF (Tg P yr−1) increased from 1.6 and 0.26 to 7.7 and 1.4, respectively. In 2050, NF would be 9.7, 21.7, 24.1, 27.7, and 15.5 kg N cap−1 yr−1 for the BAU, S1, S2, S3, and S4 scenarios, respectively. While, PF would be 1.8, 5.1, 5.6, 7.3, and 3.0 kg P cap−1 yr−1, respectively. S4 scenario results in much less NF and PF. We suggest applying the S4 scenario with a change of dietary style by reducing the foods consumption with high VNFs and VPFs by 2050.
A graphical abstract shows the per capita and national food N and P footprints in Sub-Saharan Africa during 1961-2050 under different scenarios. BAU: business as usual; S1: achieve an equitable diet (EqD) while the plant N and P uptake and all other food losses would be constant at 2017 level; S2: follow the EqD without any changes in plant N and P uptake, but the current ratio of other food losses would increase by 50%; S3: follow the EqD with a 5% less in plant N and P uptake than the current ratio, and the current ratio of other food losses would increase by 50%; S4: follow the EqD with a 10% greater in plant N and P uptake than the current ratio, while the current ratio of other food losses would decrease by 50%. Display omitted
•The current food N footprint (NF) in SSA is 8.30 kg N cap−1 yr−1.•The current food P footprint (PF) in SSA is 1.53 kg P cap−1 yr−1.•NF would be 21.7 kg N cap−1 yr−1 by 2050 based on the equitable diet scenario.•PF would be 5.1 kg P cap−1 yr−1 by 2050 based on the equitable diet scenario.•Changing dietary style in SSA will become an urgent necessity by 2050.
•Literature on LCC of food waste was limited and mostly focused on disposal.•A consistent approach for the integration of LCC and LCA for food waste studies is needed.•Differences between ...attributional and consequential LCC should be addressed.•Interpretation of results should include effects on larger economic systems.
Food waste (FW) is a global problem that is receiving increasing attention due to its environmental and economic impacts. Appropriate FW prevention, valorization, and management routes could mitigate or avoid these effects. Life cycle thinking and approaches, such as life cycle costing (LCC), may represent suitable tools to assess the sustainability of these routes. This study analyzes different LCC methodological aspects and approaches to evaluate FW management and valorization routes.
A systematic literature review was carried out with a focus on different LCC approaches, their application to food, FW, and waste systems, as well as on specific methodological aspects. The review consisted of three phases: a collection phase, an iterative phase with experts’ consultation, and a final literature classification. Journal papers and reports were retrieved from selected databases and search engines.
The standardization of LCC methodologies is still in its infancy due to a lack of consensus over definitions and approaches. Research on the life cycle cost of FW is limited and generally focused on FW management, rather than prevention or valorization of specific flows. FW prevention, valorization, and management require a consistent integration of LCC and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to avoid tradeoffs between environmental and economic impacts. This entails a proper investigation of methodological differences between attributional and consequential modelling in LCC, especially with regard to functional unit, system boundaries, multi-functionality, included cost, and assessed impacts. Further efforts could also aim at finding the most effective and transparent categorization of costs, in particular when dealing with multiple stakeholders sustaining costs of FW. Interpretation of results from LCC of FW should take into account the effect on larger economic systems. Additional key performance indicators and analytical tools could be included in consequential approaches.
The maximum amount of food losses in the fruits and vegetable supply chain due to quality and mismatch between supply and demand. As per the Global Agenda Council on Logistics and Supply Chains ...indicated that fruits and vegetables food losses due to improper handling and lack of proper cold transportation such as cold-logistics facilities/providers or inadequate infrastructure. In this article, a unique fuzzy Multi-Criteria Decision Making approach is proposed for improving the food losses through cold-third party logistics providers (CTPLs) evaluation and selection process. Through a literature survey and expert opinion, five criteria and thirty sub-criteria were identified for reducing the food losses in fruits and vegetable supply chain. The proposed tool use of fuzzy-Decision making trial and evaluation laboratory tool for selection and evaluation the priority weights of the factors and fuzzy-analytical hierarchy process tool assessing the best CTPLs according to factors. The result shows that "Refrigerator and loading capacity" and "Knowledge and Information technology management" were most significant in the selection of CTPLs. The findings of this paper are anticipated to guide managers of the food industry, CTPLs, and government agencies in formulating of strategies for the practical food supply chain. Future scope includes extending the study for other developing countries, validating the proposed methodology, and improving the reliability of the model.
Food residues (FR) have caused economic, environmental, and social issues. Few studies have integrated the biorefinery and value chain concepts for increasing FR valorization opportunities in a real ...context. This paper proposes a FR biorefineries design strategy involving limiting factors of the Food Value Chain (FVC). The strategy integrates key points such as links and actors, generation cycles, FR composition, and residues integration. Two case studies were analyzed by applying the proposed design strategy. The first case study valorizes rejected avocado and plantain generated in the producers link. The second case valorizes organic kitchen food waste (OKFW) into added-value products. The proposed design strategy introduces value chain analysis as a tool for designing feasible and reliable biorefineries. A possible integration mass ratio of 22:13:65 was identified considering rejected avocado, rejected plantain, and plantain pseudostem, respectively. The most promising alternative to upgrading the FR generated in the producers link is related to avocado oil and biogas production. The best results obtained for upgrading OKFW is to produce levulinic acid since low capital and operational expenditures are required compared with other bulk products. When involving context variables and a complete value chain analysis the opportunities to enhance sustainability and close open loops are increased.
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•Food value chain limitations are involved in designing food residues biorefineries.•A strategy is proposed and described for defining FR upgrading in biorefineries.•FR integration is demonstrated to be a suitable raw material for biorefineries.•The processing scale impact on the food residues biorefineries viability is proved.
•Detailed analysis of food losses (location, type, quantity and avoidance).•Consideration of mass modification of food during preparation process (MFA).•Novel and detailed calculation of monetary ...losses based on cost prices (MFA).•Determination of reasons and relevance of food waste through a consumer survey.•Reveal of high savings potential and development of concrete, effective measures.
Food losses occur across the whole food supply chain. They have negative effects on the economy and the environment, and they are not justifiable from an ethical point of view. The food service industry was identified by Beretta et al. (2013) as the third largest source of food waste based on food input at each stage of the value added chain. The total losses are estimated 18% of the food input, the avoidable losses 13.5%. However, these estimations are related with considerable uncertainty.
To get more reliable and detailed data of food losses in this sector, the waste from two companies (in the education and business sectors) was classified into four categories (storage losses, preparation losses, serving losses, and plate waste) and seven food classes and measured for a period of five days. A questionnaire evaluated customer reaction, and a material flow analysis was used to describe the mass and monetary losses within the process chain. The study found that in company A (education sector) 10.73% and in company B (business sector) 7.69% of the mass of all food delivered was wasted during the process chain. From this, 91.98% of the waste in company A and 78.14% in company B were classified as avoidable. The highest proportion of waste occurred from serving losses with starch accompaniments and vegetables being the most frequently wasted items. The quantities of waste per meal were 91.23g (value CHF 0.74) and 85.86g (value CHF 0.44) for company A and company B, respectively. The annual loss averaged 10.47 tonnes (value CHF 85,047) in company A and 16.55 tonnes (value CHF 85,169) in company B. The customer survey showed that 15.79% (n=356) of the respondents in company A and 18.32% (n=382) in company B produced plate waste. The main causes of plate waste cited were ‘portion served by staff too large’ and ‘lack of hunger’.
Sustainable measures need to be implemented in the food service industry to reduce food waste and to improve efficiency.
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•Causes for processing- and product-related food waste are summarised.•A literature review is supplemented with information from practitioner interviews.•Expert interviews provide new ...insights on causes for producer-related food waste.•A summary on product-related mechanisms leading to suboptimal foods is given.•The potential of factors for reducing food waste is discussed.
Reducing food waste is one of the prominent goals in the current research, which has also been set by the United Nations to achieve a more sustainable world by 2030. Given that previous studies mainly examined causes for food waste generation related to consumers, e.g., expectations regarding quality or uncertainties about edibility, this review aims at providing an overview on losses in the food industry, as well as on natural mechanisms by which impeccable food items are converted into an undesired state. For this, scientific literature was reviewed based on a keyword search, and information not covered was gathered by conducting expert interviews with representatives from 13 German food processing companies. From the available literature, three main areas of food waste generation were identified and discussed: product deterioration and spoilage during logistical operations, by-products from food processing, and consumer perception of quality and safety. In addition, expert interviews revealed causes for food waste in the processing sector, which were categorised as follows: losses resulting from processing operations and quality assurance, and products not fulfilling quality demands from trade. The interviewees explained a number of strategies to minimise food losses, starting with alternative tradeways for second choice items, and ending with emergency power supplies to compensate for power blackouts. It became clear that the concepts are not universally applicable for each company, but the overview provided in the present study may support researchers in finding appropriate solutions for individual cases.
In this paper, a new perspective of food packaging design is proposed by using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach, in which shelf life and food loss probability were taken into account. The ...study focused on twenty-four scenarios of packaging of a ripened cheese obtained from sheep milk, in order to analyze the environmental implications of different packaging systems in terms of potential food loss. The aim is to provide an eco-indicator able to quantify the environmental indirect effects related to the different choices in the food packaging. Results highlighted that, by considering only the direct inputs and outputs of the packaging system, thinner and recyclable packaging materials sealed in air are more sustainable from an environmental point of view. On the contrary, if indirect effects of food loss probability are also taken into account (e.g. production and transport of cheese in order to reconstruct the stockpile), multilayer systems under modified headspace conditions are preferred packaging solutions. This is consequence of the fact that cheese production brings about high environmental impacts if compared to the other phases of the life cycle, therefore, the environmental implications of the choices adopted for the packaging phase are more affected from the capacity of reducing food losses than from the production and disposing of packaging materials.
•A new perspective of food packaging design is proposed.•The approach utilized was based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).•The novelty consists of taking into account both product shelf life and food loss probability.•The best packaging are able to guarantee high shelf life and low food loss probability.
Food packaging helps to protect food from being lost or wasted, nevertheless it is perceived as an environmental problem. The present study gives an overview of methods to assess the environmental ...sustainability of food packaging. Furthermore, we propose a methodological framework for environmental assessment of food packaging. There is a broad consensus on the definition of sustainable packaging, which has to be effective, efficient, and safe for human health and the environment. Existing frameworks only provide general guidance on how to quantify the environmental sustainability of packaging. Our proposed framework defines three sustainability aspects of food packaging, namely direct environmental effects of packaging, packaging-related food losses and waste, as well as circularity. It provides a list of key environmental performance indicators and recommends certain calculation procedures for each indicator. The framework is oriented towards the Product Environmental Footprint initiative and the Circular Economy Package of the European Union. Further research should develop a method to determine the amount of packaging-related food losses and waste. Moreover, future studies should examine the potential environmental benefits of different measures to make food packaging more circular.
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