The microtubule-associated protein Tau plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease and several related disorders (tauopathies). In the disease Tau aggregates and becomes ...hyperphosphorylated forming paired helical and straight filaments, which can further condense into higher order neurofibrillary tangles in neurons. The development of this pathology is consistently associated with progressive neuronal loss and cognitive decline. The identification of tractable therapeutic targets in this pathway has been challenging, and consequently very few clinical studies addressing Tau pathology are underway. Recent active immunization studies have raised the possibility of modulating Tau pathology by activating the immune system. Here we report for the first time on passive immunotherapy for Tau in two well established transgenic models of Tau pathogenesis. We show that peripheral administration of two antibodies against pathological Tau forms significantly reduces biochemical Tau pathology in the JNPL3 mouse model. We further demonstrate that peripheral administration of the same antibodies in the more rapidly progressive P301S tauopathy model not only reduces Tau pathology quantitated by biochemical assays and immunohistochemistry, but also significantly delays the onset of motor function decline and weight loss. This is accompanied by a reduction in neurospheroids, providing direct evidence of reduced neurodegeneration. Thus, passive immunotherapy is effective at preventing the buildup of intracellular Tau pathology, neurospheroids, and associated symptoms, although the exact mechanism remains uncertain. Tau immunotherapy should therefore be considered as a therapeutic approach for the treatment of Alzheimer disease and other tauopathies.
Autism spectrum disorders are neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by two core symptoms; impaired social interactions and communication, and ritualistic or repetitive behaviors. Both ...epidemiological and biochemical evidence suggests that a subpopulation of autistics may be linked to immune perturbations that occurred during fetal development. These findings have given rise to an animal model, called the "maternal immune activation" model, whereby the offspring from female rodents who were subjected to an immune stimulus during early or mid-pregnancy are studied. Here, C57BL/6 mouse dams were treated mid-gestation with saline, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to mimic a bacterial infection, or polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly IC) to mimic a viral infection. Autism-associated behaviors were examined in the adult offspring of the treated dams. Behavioral tests were conducted to assess motor activity, exploration in a novel environment, sociability, and repetitive behaviors, and data analyses were carried independently on male and female mice. We observed a main treatment effect whereby male offspring from Poly IC-treated dams showed reduced motor activity. In the marble burying test of repetitive behavior, male offspring but not female offspring from both LPS and Poly IC-treated mothers showed increased marble burying. Our findings indicate that offspring from mothers subjected to immune stimulation during gestation show a gender-specific increase in stereotyped repetitive behavior.
Reciprocal activation of flexor and extensor muscles constitutes the fundamental mechanism that tetrapod vertebrates use for locomotion and limb-driven reflex behaviors. This aspect of motor ...coordination is controlled by inhibitory neurons in the spinal cord; however, the identity of the spinal interneurons that serve this function is not known. Here, we show that the production of an alternating flexor-extensor motor rhythm depends on the composite activities of two classes of ventrally located inhibitory neurons, V1 and V2b interneurons (INs). Abrogating V1 and V2b IN-derived neurotransmission in the isolated spinal cord results in a synchronous pattern of L2 flexor-related and L5 extensor-related locomotor activity. Mice lacking V1 and V2b inhibition are unable to articulate their limb joints and display marked deficits in limb-driven reflex movements. Taken together, these findings identify V1- and V2b-derived neurons as the core interneuronal components of the limb central pattern generator (CPG) that coordinate flexor-extensor motor activity.
Transcranial application of pulsed low-intensity focused ultrasound (FUS) modulates the excitability of region-specific brain areas, and anesthetic confounders on brain activity warrant the ...evaluation of the technique in awake animals. We examined the neuromodulatory effects of FUS in unanesthetized sheep by developing a custom-fit headgear capable of reproducibly placing an acoustic focus on the unilateral motor cortex (M1) and corresponding thalamic area. The efferent responses to sonication, based on the acoustic parameters previously identified in anesthetized sheep, were measured using electromyography (EMG) from both hind limbs across three experimental conditions: on-target sonication, off-target sonication, and without sonication. Excitatory sonication yielded greater amplitude of EMG signals obtained from the hind limb contralateral to sonication than that from the ipsilateral limb. Spurious appearance of motion-related EMG signals limited the amount of analyzed data (~ 10% selection of acquired data) during excitatory sonication, and the averaged EMG response rates elicited by the M1 and thalamic stimulations were 7.5 ± 1.4% and 6.7 ± 1.5%, respectively. Suppressive sonication, while sheep walked on the treadmill, temporarily reduced the EMG amplitude from the limb contralateral to sonication. No significant change was found in the EMG amplitudes during the off-target sonication. Behavioral observation throughout the study and histological analysis showed no sign of brain tissue damage caused by the acoustic stimulation. Marginal response rates observed during excitatory sonication call for technical refinement to reduce motion artifacts during EMG acquisitions as well as acoustic aberration correction schemes to improve spatial accuracy of sonication. Yet, our results indicate that low-intensity FUS modulated the excitability of regional brain tissues reversibly and safely in awake sheep, supporting its potential in theragnostic applications.
Unpredictable deviations from an otherwise regular auditory sequence, as well as rare sounds following a period of silence, are detected automatically. Recent evidence suggests that the latter also ...elicit quick involuntary modulations of ongoing motor activity emerging as early as 100 ms following sound onset, which was attributed to supramodal processing. We explored such force modulations for both rare and deviant sounds. Participants (N = 29) pinched a force sensitive device and maintained a force of 1–2 N for periods of 1 min. Task-irrelevant tones were presented under two conditions. In the Rare condition, 4000 Hz tones were presented every 8-to-16 s. In the Roving condition, 4000 Hz and 2996 Hz tones were presented at rate of 1 s, with infrequent (p = 1/12) frequency changes. In the Rare condition, transient force modulations were observed with a significant increase at ~ 234 ms, and a decrease at ~ 350 ms. In the Roving condition with low frequency deviant tones, an increase in force was observed at ~ 277 ms followed by a decrease at ~ 413 ms. No significant modulations were observed during perception of high frequency deviants. These results suggest that both rare silence-breaking sounds and low-pitched deviants evoke automatic fluctuations of motor responses, which opens up the possibility that these force modulations are triggered by stimulus-specific change-detection processes.
In Drosophila, a 'clock' situated in the brain controls circadian rhythms of locomotor activity. This clock relies on several groups of neurons that express the Period (PER) protein, including the ...ventral lateral neurons (LNvs), which express the Pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) neuropeptide, and the PDF-negative dorsal lateral neurons (LNds). In normal cycles of day and night, adult flies exhibit morning and evening peaks of activity; however, the contribution of the different clock neurons to the rest-activity pattern remains unknown. Here, we have used targeted expression of PER to restore the clock function of specific subsets of lateral neurons in arrhythmic per0 mutant flies. We show that PER expression restricted to the LNvs only restores the morning activity, whereas expression of PER in both the LNvs and LNds also restores the evening activity. This provides the first neuronal bases for 'morning' and 'evening' oscillators in the Drosophila brain. Furthermore, we show that the LNvs alone can generate 24 h activity rhythms in constant darkness, indicating that the morning oscillator is sufficient to drive the circadian system.
In recent years, there have been huge advances in the use of genetically modified mice to study pathophysiological mechanisms involved in schizophrenia. This has allowed rapid progress in our ...understanding of the role of several proposed gene mechanisms in schizophrenia, and yet this research has also revealed how much still remains unresolved. Behavioral studies in genetically modified mice are reviewed with special emphasis on modeling psychotic-like behavior. I will particularly focus on observations on locomotor hyperactivity and disruptions of prepulse inhibition (PPI). Recommendations are included to address pharmacological and methodological aspects in future studies. Mouse models of dopaminergic and glutamatergic dysfunction are then discussed, reflecting the most important and widely studied neurotransmitter systems in schizophrenia. Subsequently, psychosis-like behavior in mice with modifications in the most widely studied schizophrenia susceptibility genes is reviewed. Taken together, the available studies reveal a wealth of available data which have already provided crucial new insight and mechanistic clues which could lead to new treatments or even prevention strategies for schizophrenia.
The role of neuromodulators in the cerebellum is not well understood. In particular, the behavioural significance of the cholinergic system in the cerebellum is unknown. To investigate the importance ...of cerebellar cholinergic signalling in behaviour, we infused acetylcholine receptor antagonists, scopolamine and mecamylamine, bilaterally into the rat cerebellum (centred on interpositus nucleus) and observed the motor effects through a battery of behavioural tests. These tests included unrewarded behaviour during open field exploration and a horizontal ladder walking task and reward‐based beam walking and pellet reaching tasks. Infusion of a mix of the antagonists did not impair motor learning in the horizontal ladder walking or the reaching task but reduced spontaneous movement during open field exploration, impaired coordination during beam walking and ladder walking, led to fewer reaches in the pellet reaching task, slowed goal‐directed reaching behaviour and reduced reward pellet consumption in a free access to food task. Infusion of the muscarinic antagonist scopolamine on its own resulted in deficits in motor performance and a reduction in the number of reward pellets consumed in the free access to food task. By contrast, infusion of the nicotinic antagonist mecamylamine on its own had no significant effect on any task, except beam walking traversal time, which was reduced. Together, these data suggest that acetylcholine in the cerebellar interpositus nucleus is important for the execution and coordination of voluntary movements mainly via muscarinic receptor signalling, especially in relation to reward‐related behaviour.
Cholinergic activity within the cerebellum of rats was manipulated by infusion of cholinergic antagonists or a cholinesterase inhibitor via indwelling cannulae targeting the interpositus nuclei. Following infusion, motor impairments were found in tasks with and without food rewards, indicating that cerebellar acetylcholine is important for motor behaviour. The number of reward pellets consumed following infusion was reduced, suggesting there may also be effects on feeding behaviour.
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