The use of peatlands and the multiple but mutually exclusive ecosystem services they provide is a highly debated issue worldwide. We used a participatory multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) to ...address multiple value dimensions and trade-offs related to peatland ecosystem services in Southern Finland. We evaluated five peatland policy scenarios against provisioning, regulating and cultural ecosystem services as well as socio-economic factors, and engaged key stakeholders in framing the assessment and assigning criteria weights. The MCDA process showed that while peat extraction can basically be reconciled with preserving the most important biodiversity values in Finland, the conflict between peat extraction and carbon stock as well as water quality impacts and the related amenity values is irreconcilable. The role of the participatory MCDA process in promoting learning and reflection was smaller than expected but it did facilitate learning about the flows of peatland ecosystem services. The role of the participants was important not only in making value judgements but also in contributing to the impact assessment, thereby supporting the calls for transdisciplinarity in ecosystem service assessments.
•MCDA supported a systematic scrutiny of the key aspects in the peatland debate.•The process facilitated cognitive learning on peatland ecosystem services.•MCDA helped to articulate social values related to peatlands.•The role of MCDA in promoting value reflection was smaller than expected.
An understanding of risks to biodiversity is needed for planning action to slow current rates of decline and secure ecosystem services for future human use. Although the IUCN Red List criteria ...provide an effective assessment protocol for species, a standard global assessment of risks to higher levels of biodiversity is currently limited. In 2008, IUCN initiated development of risk assessment criteria to support a global Red List of ecosystems. We present a new conceptual model for ecosystem risk assessment founded on a synthesis of relevant ecological theories. To support the model, we review key elements of ecosystem definition and introduce the concept of ecosystem collapse, an analogue of species extinction. The model identifies four distributional and functional symptoms of ecosystem risk as a basis for assessment criteria: A) rates of decline in ecosystem distribution; B) restricted distributions with continuing declines or threats; C) rates of environmental (abiotic) degradation; and D) rates of disruption to biotic processes. A fifth criterion, E) quantitative estimates of the risk of ecosystem collapse, enables integrated assessment of multiple processes and provides a conceptual anchor for the other criteria. We present the theoretical rationale for the construction and interpretation of each criterion. The assessment protocol and threat categories mirror those of the IUCN Red List of species. A trial of the protocol on terrestrial, subterranean, freshwater and marine ecosystems from around the world shows that its concepts are workable and its outcomes are robust, that required data are available, and that results are consistent with assessments carried out by local experts and authorities. The new protocol provides a consistent, practical and theoretically grounded framework for establishing a systematic Red List of the world's ecosystems. This will complement the Red List of species and strengthen global capacity to report on and monitor the status of biodiversity.
Climate change velocity is an increasingly used metric to assess the broad-scale climatic exposure and climate change induced risks to terrestrial and marine ecosystems. However, the utility of this ...metric in conservation planning can be enhanced by determining the velocities of multiple climatic drivers in real protected area (PA) networks on ecologically relevant scales. Here we investigate the velocities of three key bioclimatic variables across a nation-wide reserve network, and the consequences of including fine-grained topoclimatic data in velocity assessments. Using 50-m resolution data describing present-day and future topoclimates, we assessed the velocities of growing degree days, the mean January temperature and climatic water balance in the Natura 2000 PA network in Finland. The high-velocity areas for the three climate variables differed drastically, indicating contrasting exposure risks in different PAs. The 50-m resolution climate data revealed more realistic estimates of climate velocities and more overlap between the present-day and future climate spaces in the PAs than the 1-km resolution data. Even so, the current temperature conditions were projected to disappear from almost all the studied PAs by the end of this century. Thus, in PA networks with only moderate topographic variation, far-reaching climate change induced ecological changes may be inevitable.
Peatlands provide habitats for many species and a variety of ecosystem services worldwide. In this study we used an integrated biophysical-economic modeling approach with multi-objective optimization ...to investigate how alternative land-use and land-management (LULM) options jointly affect economic returns from marketed (timber, energy peat, restoration costs) and non-marketed public goods (water quality, GHG emissions, biodiversity) in a typical landscape dominated by peatlands in northern Finland. We considered several LULM options including no action (the current state will continue), bioenergy wood harvesting, intensive forest management, restoration, and energy peat extraction with three after use options (no after use, reforestation, rewetting). Our study revealed strong tradeoffs between biodiversity and ecosystem services in drained peatlands. Optimal LULM depended strongly on the chosen objectives, i.e. whether marketed or non-marketed goods were preferred. For example, when the objective was carbon neutral land-use, the no action option was mostly chosen, while bioenergy wood harvesting was mostly chosen when the objective was to provide economic and environmental benefits at the same time. The strong tradeoff between biodiversity and ecosystem services indicates that compromises are unavoidable in order to obtain a multi-functional landscape which provides biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation and water protection in a cost-effective manner.
•Selection of alternative land-management options for peatlands was analyzed.•The cost-impact analysis utilized multi-objective optimization.•The variables were the NPV, biodiversity, climate impact, and water emissions.•A small decrease in the NPV resulted in a clear increase in environmental benefits.•Optimal land-management depended strongly on the chosen objectives.
We used habitat suitability modeling to investigate whether the 15% ecosystem restoration target set in the previous Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) and EU Biodiversity strategy targets, is ...sufficient to safeguard red-listed mire plant species. We assessed six theoretical restoration scenarios for drained peatland landscapes by altering the proportion of drained and undrained peatland area in 25-ha grid cells. The proportions represented steps when 15%, 30%, 45%, 60%, 75% and 100% of the drained peatland is restored. We modelled the habitat suitability for 48 red-listed plant species in the aapa mire region in boreal Finland. Model outcomes were assessed at the level of five species groups: calcareous species, rich fen species, decaying wood species, mesotrophic fen species, and spruce swamp species. The predicted distribution increased for 34 (71%) of the 48 red-listed plant species when 15% of drained peatland area was predicted to be restored. At the same time the potentially occupied area of species increased by 9%. In the scenario where all peatlands were restored, the predicted distribution of 43 (90%) of species increased, and on average the distribution of species quadrupled. According to our predictions, meeting the 15% ecosystem restoration target, set in the previous CBD and EU Biodiversity strategy targets would be beneficial for most of the boreal red-listed mire plant species, but a larger restoration area would expand their distribution considerably more. Our study shows that a landscape level approach is important to assess thresholds for the potential biodiversity benefits arising from peatland restoration. The models can also be used to select suitable areas for restoration.
Aapa mires are waterlogged northern peatland ecosystems characterized by a patterned surface structure where water‐filled depressions (‘flarks’) alternate with drier hummock strings. As one of the EU ...Habitat Directive priority habitats, aapa mires are important for biodiversity and carbon cycling, harbouring several red‐listed species and supporting unique species communities. Due to their sensitivity to hydrological disturbances, reliable, up‐to‐date and systematic information on the hydrological condition and responses of mires is crucial and required for multiple purposes ranging from carbon exchange modelling to EU Habitats Directive reporting and conservation and ecosystem restoration planning. Here, we demonstrate the usability of Sentinel‐2 satellite data in a semi‐automatic cloud‐based approach to retrieve large‐scale information on aapa mire hydrological variability. Two satellite‐derived metrics, soil moisture index and the extent of water‐saturated surfaces based on pixel‐wise classification, are used to quantify monthly and interannual wetness variation between 2017 and 2020 across Natura 2000 aapa mires in Finland, including responses to the extreme drought of 2018. The results revealed high temporal variability in wetness, particularly in the southern parts of the aapa mire zone and generally in the late summer months interannually. Observations from the drought summer showed that one third of usually year‐round wet flark surfaces may be exposed to drying during climatic extremes. Responses varied between sites and regions, implicating the significance of environmental factors for drought resistance: some sites maintained high levels of moisture, whereas others lost wet surfaces completely. Our study provides the first comprehensive national‐level representation of seasonal and interannual wetness variability and drought‐sensitivity of pristine aapa mire sites. The approach and methods used here can be directly upscaled outside protected areas and to other EU countries. Thus, they provide a means for harmonized, systematic large‐scale monitoring of this priority habitat, as well as valuable information for other applications supporting peatland conservation and research.
Aapa mires are northern peatland ecosystems of high conservation value, that are currently threatened by hydrological disturbances caused by land use and climate change. In this study we utilize Sentinel‐2 satellite imagery in a semi‐automatic cloud‐based approach to retrieve large‐scale information on wetness variability of over two thousand pristine aapa mires in Finland in 2017–2020, as well as their sensitivity to drought in summer 2018. The results reveal high temporal variability and climatic sensitivity of mire wetness levels, especially in late summer months and the southern parts of aapa mire occurrence zone.
The Habitats Directive of the European Union is a key legislative instrument in Europe, supporting the conservation of rare, threatened or endemic species. It aims at ensuring that the species listed ...in the Annexes of the Habitats Directive show a favourable conservation status, i.e., that they are able to maintain viable populations and that their natural range is sufficient and not decreasing currently, nor will in the future. However, climate change may hamper Habitats Directive species in achieving (or maintaining) a favourable conservation status, particularly when these impacts are amplified by adverse land use. Here, we studied Habitats Directive species in Finland for which ≥70% of the occurrences were recorded with the resolution of ≤100 m. The number of occurrence sites for the 52 species studied ranged from one site to 13,653 sites, summing up to 19,367 sites. For all these sites and their surroundings, we assessed the vulnerabilities caused by climate change and land use. The climate exposure of occurrence sites was measured based on the rapidity of climatic changes (i.e. climate velocity) in three climate variables (growing degree days, mean January air temperature, water balance) at each site. Risks caused by land use were assessed using two negative and four positive variables that respectively described the quantity of land cover and habitats that is either harmful (e.g. clear-cut forest and drained peatlands) or supportive (protected areas and suitable habitats) to species occurrences. To complement climate and land-use variables, three additional variables describing protection status of the sites and the number of occurrences of the same species in the landscape were examined. Comparison of the mean vulnerability values for each species showed that some of the species inhabit, on average, areas with high climate exposure. Moreover, in certain species climate change-induced vulnerabilities consistently coincide with negative land use. However, in many of the 52 species there was large variation in the vulnerability levels between individual occurrence sites, concerning both climate exposure and land-use variables. Considering the vulnerabilities due to climate change separately, 40–60% of the species occurrence sites are expected to face high exposure caused by rapid changes in summer or winter temperatures, which presents challenges in maintaining a favourable conservation status. Our results also revealed numerous species occurrences where high climate velocity coincided with a large amount of negative land use and low amount of suitable habitat, for which climate-wise conservation planning could be targeted.
•Climate change-induced risks to EU Habitats Directive species are poorly known.•Adverse land use for species often coincides with high climate change velocity.•Climate change and land use threats vary notably both between and within species.•Mapping risks across species occurrences is central to climate-wise conservation.•Climate change land-use risks hinder Habitats Directive species from reaching a favourable status.
Anthropogenic disturbance often causes changes in communities. However, the mechanistic basis of these changes remains elusive. As all patterns in community ecology can be understood as a result of ...four processes (speciation, selection, drift, and dispersal), the effect of disturbance should depend on how disturbance disrupt these processes. We studied the effects of disturbance and productivity on species richness, community composition, and community dispersion (i.e., variation in community composition) in the vegetation of 120 boreal peatlands using null‐model approach to determine whether community assembly processes differ between pristine and disturbed sites. Sites represented three peatland ecosystem types, each with two levels of productivity. Half of the sites were disturbed by drainage and half are pristine. Pristine and disturbed sites showed similar species richness. However, their community composition differed indicating a directional selection due to disturbance, whereas dispersion of disturbed and pristine communities did not differ suggesting no change in the relative strength of selection and drift. Our results suggest that understanding the combination of landscape level community changes and local selection pressures is important when restoration of degraded ecosystems is undertaken.
We studied 45 mid-boreal wetlands in a rugged land uplift coast with a thin cover of till. Wetlands ranged from 1 to 53 m a.s.l. and were of highly various sizes. Our aims were to examine, if ...vegetation types are valid in comparing wetlands, what kind of ecological major pattern the vegetation type composition of wetlands shows and how vegetation types distribute across altitudes. On those ground we discuss the wetland succession of the study area. We used the Finnish mire site types as vegetation types. Mire site types could be used for an ecological classification and ordination of the wetlands. As was expected, the major gradient consisted of the transition from mire margin (swamp) to expanse. The distribution of the Major Vegetational Wetland Groups (MVWG) responded to a general water-flow pattern in the landscape. Partly different peatland succession sequences occur in areas with small mire basins and in areas with larger mire basins with evolving mire complexes. Sequences of small wetlands and those of mire complexes follow the same trajectory only as far as the major gradient is considered while they differ with regard to the vegetation type composition of locally rare vegetation types and with regard to peatland morphology. Trajectories of mire complexes at catchment divides differ from those at catchment centers where the waters in the landscape tend to gather. Peatland forms of aapa mires experience a change reaching altitudes of 30–50 m a.s.l. Small bog complexes at catchment divides reach a stage of an unpatterned Sphagnum fuscum bog in the study area. Mature mixed complexes with aapa-mire parts and patterned sloping-bog parts only occur at altitudes higher than 60 m a.s.l. Peculiarities in the succession of the wetlands of Nyby, which include the presence of separate incomplete successional sequences in the same area, are mainly caused by the peculiar topography with various sub-areas and with an abundance of rock outcrops.
Protected areas (PAs) are crucial in conserving biodiversity under climate change. In boreal regions, trends of biologically relevant climate variables (i.e., bioclimate) in PAs have remained ...unquantified. We investigated the changes and variability of 11 key bioclimatic variables across Finland during the period 1961–2020 based on gridded climatology. Our results suggest significant changes in annual mean and growing season temperatures over the entire study area, whereas, e.g., annual precipitation sum and April–September water balance have increased especially in the central and northern parts of Finland. We found substantial variation in bioclimatic changes over the 631 studied PAs; in the northern boreal zone (NB) the number of snow-covered days has decreased on average by 5.9 days between 1961–1990 and 1991–2020, while in the southern boreal zone (SB) the corresponding decrease has been 16.1 days. The number of frost days in spring with absent snow cover has decreased in the NB (on average −0.9 days) while increasing in the SB (0.5 days), reflecting the changing exposure of biota to frost. The observed increases in accumulation of heat in the SB and more frequent rain-on-snow events in the NB can affect drought tolerance and winter survival of species, respectively. Principal component analysis suggested that the main dimensions of bioclimate change in PAs vary across vegetation zones; for example, in the SB the changes are related to annual and growing season temperatures, whereas in the middle boreal zone the changes are linked to altered moisture and snow conditions. Our results highlight the substantial spatial variation in bioclimatic trends and climate vulnerability across the PAs and vegetation zones. These findings provide a basis for the understanding of the multifaceted changes the boreal PA network is facing and help to develop and direct conservation and management.
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•We studied variability and trends in 11 bioclimatic variables across Finland.•The main dimensions of the bioclimate change in PAs vary across the vegetation zones.•Overall climate vulnerability is relatively high in the northern and coastal PAs.•We found large spatial variation in bioclimatic trends across the PAs.•Results help develop and direct future conservation and management.
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