Mast cells (MCs) are portions of the innate and adaptive immune system derived from bone marrow (BM) progenitors that are rich in cytoplasmic granules. MC maturation, phenotype, and function are ...determined by their microenvironment. MCs accumulate at inflammatory sites associated with atopy, wound healing, and malignancies. They interact with the external environment and are predominantly located in close proximity of blood vessels and sensory nerves. MCs are key initiators and modulators of allergic, anaphylactic, and other inflammatory reactions, by induction of vasodilation, promoting of vascular permeability, recruitment of inflammatory cells, facilitation of adaptive immune responses, and modulation of angiogenesis, and fibrosis. They express a wide range of receptors, e.g., for IgE (FcεRI), IgG (FcγR), stem cell factor (SCF) (KIT receptor or CD117), complement (including C5aR), and cytokines, that upon activation trigger various signaling pathways. The final consequence of such ligand receptor–based activation of MCs is the release of a broad array of mediators which are classified in three categories. While some mediators are preformed and remain stored in granules such as heparin, histamine, and enzymes mainly chymase and tryptase, others are de novo synthesized only after activation including LTB4, LTD4, PDG2, and PAF, and the cytokines IL-10, IL-8, IL-5, IL-3, IL-1, GM-CSF, TGF-β, VEGF, and TNF-α. Depending on the stimulus, MCs calibrate their pattern of mediator release, modulate the amplification of allergic inflammation, and are involved in the resolution of the immune responses. Here, we review recent findings and reports that help to understand the MC biology, pathology, and physiology of diseases with MC involvement.
Although nasal allergy has been prominent in allergy research, ocular allergy is increasingly recognized as a distinct symptom complex that imposes its own disease burden and reduction in patients’ ...quality of life. In the past year, knowledge of the relationships between allergic conjunctivitis and allergic rhinitis has increased. Allergic conjunctivitis is highly prevalent and has a close epidemiologic relationship with allergic rhinitis. Both conditions also exhibit similar pathophysiologic mechanisms. Pathways of communication are thought to increase the likelihood of an inflammatory reaction at both sites following allergen exposure of nasal or ocular tissue. Clinical trials of intranasal therapies have demonstrated efficacy in allergic conjunctivitis and rhinitis. Newer intranasal steroids decrease ocular symptoms, potentially achieving efficacy by suppressing the naso-ocular reflex, downregulation of inflammatory cell expression, or restoration of nasolacrimal duct patency. Proposed pathophysiologic interactions between allergic rhinitis and ocular allergy underscore the need for therapies with efficacy in both symptom sets.
Background Allergies give rise to the fifth-leading group of chronic diseases. However, the specific prevalence of ocular allergy is poorly described. Objective We sought to provide a more accurate ...representation of the epidemiology of ocular allergy in the United States. Methods The National Health And Nutrition Examination Survey III performed in the United States from 1988-1994 was the source for the data collected. Items from the questionnaire regarding ocular and nasal allergy symptoms in relation to skin prick testing were stratified by age, race, region, and sex. Results The sample size is 20,010: 1,285 (6.4%) reported ocular symptoms, 3,294 (16.5%) reported nasal symptoms, 5,944 (29.7%) reported both ocular and nasal symptoms, and 9.487 (47.4%) were asymptomatic. Forty percent of the population reported at least 1 occurrence of ocular symptoms in the past 12 months. Those 50 years and older have a higher frequency of isolated ocular symptoms ( P < .001). There is an increase in the frequency of symptoms in those younger than 50 years in the populations of subjects with ocular and nasal symptoms combined and isolated nasal symptoms ( P < .001). Ocular symptoms are more frequent than nasal symptoms in relation to animals ( P < .001), household dust ( P < .001), and pollen ( P < .001). Conclusion This analysis provides the first representation of the epidemiology of ocular allergy in the United States. Up to 40% of the population, the highest reported to date, have experienced ocular symptoms at least once in their lifetime, with a peak of symptoms in the months of June and July.
Background Prenatal and postnatal probiotic supplementation for prevention and treatment of pediatric atopic dermatitis (PAD) has been studied in clinical trials, but results have been mixed and ...hindered by heterogeneity of study design. Objectives To summarize and interpret quantitatively clinical trial findings on the efficacy of probiotics for PAD and to define key trial features correlating with high methodologic quality. Methods PubMed and Cochrane database searches yielded 21 trials (n = 1898; age 0-13 y) published between February 1997 and May 2007 for review and quality assessment. Ten double-blind randomized controlled clinical trials were meta-analyzed by using RevMan. Data from the 6 prevention studies (n = 1581) and 4 treatment trials (n = 299) were pooled by using fixed-effects and random-effects models of relative risk ratios and of weighted mean difference, respectively. Results Prevention corresponded with summary effect sizes of 0.69 (0.57, 0.83) and 0.66 (0.49, 0.89), respectively, supporting probiotics' PAD prevention potential, which decreased further to 0.61 after exclusion of the 1 trial of postnatal-only probiotics. The clinical significance of the treatment trial findings of intergroup Scoring Atopic Dermatitis (quantification of PAD severity) score reduction by –6.64 points (–9.78, –3.49) and –8.56 (–18.39, 1.28), and intragroup change of –1.06 (–3.86, 1.73) and –1.37 (–4.81, 2.07), is questionable. Conclusion Current evidence is more convincing for probiotics' efficacy in prevention than treatment of PAD.
Purpose of Review
The purpose of this article is to review treatment advances in ocular allergy that include the treatment of the various signs and symptoms of the allergic inflammatory response of ...the ocular surface.
Recent Findings
Recent studies have demonstrated improved pharmacological effect of topical agents with artificial tears and cold compresses; brimonidine, a new ophthalmic decongestant which has demonstrated decreased rebound conjunctivitis; and potential use of contact lens and other novel delivery instruments to increase medication retention time.
Summary
Currently, there have been limited advances in novel ophthalmic treatments. Non-pharmacological interventions have demonstrated in a randomized control study that artificial tears and the use cold compresses alone or in combination with ophthalmic antihistamines can enhance the effectiveness of a traditional pharmacological therapy. The primary advances have been the start of head-to-head studies comparing various agents actively being used in the treatment of ocular allergy. In addition, there has been increasing interest in the development of novel delivery systems to increase residence time of pharmacological agents in the ocular surface such as nanoparticles, microfilms; examining novel pathways of controlling the allergic inflammatory response of the ocular surface such as modulation of cytokines, transcription factors, and immunophilins.
Many diseases are linked with climate trends and variations. In particular, climate change is expected to alter the spatiotemporal dynamics of allergenic airborne pollen and potentially increase ...occurrence of allergic airway disease. Understanding the spatiotemporal patterns of changes in pollen season timing and levels is thus important in assessing climate impacts on aerobiology and allergy caused by allergenic airborne pollen. Here, we describe the spatiotemporal patterns of changes in the seasonal timing and levels of allergenic airborne pollen for multiple taxa in different climate regions at a continental scale. The allergenic pollen seasons of representative trees, weeds and grass during the past decade (2001–2010) across the contiguous United States have been observed to start 3.0 95% Confidence Interval (CI), 1.1–4.9 days earlier on average than in the 1990s (1994–2000). The average peak value and annual total of daily counted airborne pollen have increased by 42.4% (95% CI, 21.9–62.9%) and 46.0% (95% CI, 21.5–70.5%), respectively. Changes of pollen season timing and airborne levels depend on latitude, and are associated with changes of growing degree days, frost free days, and precipitation. These changes are likely due to recent climate change and particularly the enhanced warming and precipitation at higher latitudes in the contiguous United States.
To review which herbs are most commonly used as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for treatment of asthma, allergy, and immunologic conditions.
A review of the literature was performed ...using the PubMed and OVID databases searching the keywords asthma, allergy, and CAM to identify studies published between 1980 and 2003 that focused on Echinacea (Echinacea augustifolia, Echinacea pallida, and Echinacea purpurea); garlic (Allium); angelica; chamomile; ephedra; gingko; grape seed extract; licorice root (Glycyrrhiza); St. John's wort (Hypericum); kava kava (Piper); peppermint oil and leaf (Mentha); stinging nettle (Urtica); and ginseng (Panax) published in the English and German literature.
Studies included in vitro and in vivo clinical trials and case reports selected according to the expert opinion of the author.
Echinacea is one of the most common herbs used to treat symptoms of the "common cold" or upper respiratory tract allergies. Although no common drug interactions have been reported, there is a risk of hepatotoxicity, exacerbation of allergies and asthma, and anaphylactic reactions. Garlic is primarily used for cardiovascular health and relief of cough, colds, and rhinitis. Adverse effects commonly include gastrointestinal disturbances, change in body odor through the sweat and breath, and rarely allergic reactions or hypoglycemia. Other CAM agents, including angelica, German chamomile flower, ephedra, gingko, grape seed extract, licorice root, St. John's wort, kava kava rhizome, peppermint, stinging nettle, and ginseng, are also associated with significant adverse effects.
The specialty of allergy and immunology has seen the second largest increase in the popularity of CAM (second only to practitioners who treat lower back pain). Almost all of the CAM interventions have displayed adverse effects, usually in the form of a hypersensitivity reaction. Allergists and clinical immunologists need to become more knowledgeable about CAM so that they can inform patients about the use and possible abuse of these modalities.
Allergic rhinitis (AR) is more appropriately termed allergic rhinoconjunctivitis owing to the equally bothersome nasal and ocular symptoms. Extensive evidence supports the ability of intranasal ...corticosteroids to reduce nasal symptoms of AR, although less evidence is available to define clearly their impact on allergic conjunctivitis.
To determine the effect of the intranasal corticosteroid mometasone furoate nasal spray (NS) on the ocular symptoms of seasonal AR.
This retrospective pooled analysis of 4 placebo-controlled clinical studies randomized patients 12 years and older with symptomatic seasonal AR to receive mometasone furoate NS, 200 microg once daily (n = 491), or placebo (n = 492). Ocular symptom (eye tearing epiphora, itching pruritus, and redness erythema) severity was rated by patients twice daily on a 4-point scale (0 = none to 3 = severe) in the morning and evening, with scores averaged to obtain a daily mean score. Efficacy variables were the pooled mean change from baseline in the averaged morning and evening total ocular symptom score (TOSS) and the individual ocular symptom scores.
The change in mean TOSS from baseline to days 1 to 15 was -1.33 (-19.8%) with mometasone furoate NS and -0.93 (-5.6%) with placebo (P < .001). Improvements in individual symptoms were significantly better with mometasone furoate NS than with placebo on days 2 (tearing) and 4 (itching and redness). A slightly greater reduction in TOSS was seen with mometasone furoate NS treatment in the evening than in the morning.
This detailed analysis of an intranasal corticosteroid on individual ocular symptoms supports the positive impact of mometasone furoate NS on ocular symptoms.
Conclusions Granularity of pollen counting sites has a direct impact on our ability to use pollen data in tandem with other measurements (temperature, humidity, etc). to assess the effects of macro ...and micro environmental changes on allergens and plants at large.
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