In the circular economy concept, besides protecting the environment, green policy measures provide essential economic benefits through resource security, economic stability, and the creation of green ...jobs. This study centres its attention on the labour use aspect of the circular economy and aims to examine the potential for green economy measures to create green jobs in the agriculture sector. As a methodological approach, we combine “top-down” and “bottom-up” analyses of the green economy experience of Slovenia, where agri-environmental measures (AEM) play an essential role in the Slovenian rural development programme (2007–2014), with the highest amount of subsidies per unit of output among the 10 new European Union Member States. The results show that an AEM adoption of green policy measures by very large dairy and field crop farms significantly increases total labour use: while for field crop farms this increase is in hired labour, for dairy farms this increase is in family labour. While hired and family labour perform as substitutes for very large dairy farms, they perform as complements for very large field crop farms. The present study suggests further steps towards identifying the green economy measures that are needed to create green jobs in the agriculture sector for rural youth.
•The potential of green economy measures for job creation on farms is examined.•The analyses are based on top-down and bottom-up approaches.•The Between Effect models are applied to examine labour use change on farms.•Labour use increases are observed for very large farms which adopted green measures.•Hired and family labour perform as complements for very large field crop farms.
Here, we seek to review the relevant literature and published articles on the subjects of electricity markets, electricity prices and green energy transition ...
Although the visibility of women farmers in agriculture is increasing, we have little knowledge about the impact this will have on the environmental management of family farms. Numerous studies have ...documented that young women farmers show high concern for environmentally friendly farming practices relative to young male farmers. However, family farms are still a prominent business form globally, and it is still unclear whether or not we can expect young women farmers in different employment statuses (manager, or full-time farm worker and spouse) and work schedules (full- or part-time) to show any differences in the adoption of environmental practices compared to young male farmers. This study investigates the question of how increasing the visibility of women on family farms, and young women's sensitivity to environmental concerns relative to male's, plays out in the dynamic of adopting Agri-Environment-Climate Measures (AECMs). Our results confirm gender differences in AECM adoption behavior when we investigate the employment statuses of young women farmers; however, for part-time family farms, gender differences in the adoption behavior disappears, while they emerge for environmental subsidies received. We argue that gender aspects of the adoption behavior of AECMs contain several overlapping issues, particularly gender differences in the spouse's involvement in farm work.
► Slovenian farms have always been small and highly subsidized. ► Small farms are less technically and economically efficient, but are more allocatively efficient and profitable. ► Subsidies reduce ...technical and economic efficiency, but favour allocative efficiency and profitability.
The paper investigates the links between size, subsidies and performance for Slovenian farms. Slovenian farms have always been small and highly subsidized. A literature review is carried out for the period before accession to the European Union (EU), and new calculations with farm-level data are performed for 2004–2006, the period of adjustment to the EU's Common Agricultural Policy. Our analysis reveals that both pre- and post-accession farms’ performance measured in terms of technical efficiency is positively related to farm size in Slovenia. We find that small farms are less technically efficient but more allocatively efficient and profitable. The persistence of small farms in Slovenia may be associated with the provision of generous subsidies, which are negatively related to farms’ technical efficiency but positively related to their profitability. The decline in the number of medium-size farms which has been observed since the accession to the EU may be explained by the fact that medium farms cumulate all disadvantages in terms of performance: they are too small to be economically efficient, but they are too large to be profitable.
The agricultural and rural development policy seeks to facilitate the transition towards environmentally sustainable and climate-neutral agricultural practices, with a focus on human capital, ...knowledge, and innovation. Gender equality can play a significant role in promoting environmentally sustainable practices in the agricultural sector, particularly through the adoption and implementation of agri-environment-climate schemes (AECS) in the context of farm, agricultural, and rural development. We examine the presence of gender bias in the adoption intensity of AECS by utilising farm-level data from Slovenia. We find that women on Slovenian farms engage in the adoption of AECS and receive subsidies, despite the presence of a gender gap in various agricultural factor endowment variables that typically favour men. The results of this study provide evidence in favour of promoting greater involvement and empowerment of women in the fields of green technology applications and green entrepreneurship, particularly with AECS practices.
•Disasters in Slovenian forests are becoming more frequent due to the changing climate.•Large-scale ice storm in forests in 2014 caused severe economic loss.•Significant positive effect of some CAP ...payments on forest farms’ income recovery.•Magnitude of payment effects are high for less favoured area and disaster payments.•Heterogeneities in farm income recovery effect depends on farm woodland size.
In the last decade Slovenia has experienced more frequent natural disasters in forests. The most severe and widespread one that affected Slovenian forests, which cover more than a half of Slovenian territory, was a large-scale ice storm in early February 2014. This study aims to investigate the effect of the public support on the recovery of forest farms affected by the 2014 ice storm. Analyses focus particularly on the ability of Slovenian forest farms’ income recovery in a short-time period. The economic resilience of forest farms in the absence of forest disaster payments due to the absence of legal certainty for disaster aid in 2014 and 2015 provides an interesting framework for identifying the income effect of Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) payments. The Farm Accountancy Data Network has been used with applied statistical and regression methods to estimate the public support effect on selected woodland area size samples. Results suggest a positive effect of CAP payments on farm income recovery. The magnitude of the effect is high and significant for the less favoured area and disaster payments that were given for farm production loss in the 2013 drought. Although the magnitude of the effect is weak, investment payments show a significant positive effect on farm income recovery for all studied forest farm samples.
In recent years, studies have identified the determining factors for participation in voluntary agri-environmental measures (AEMs) by farmers who support sustainable agricultural production ...practices. Although the previous implementation of AEMs is an important determinant of sustainable behaviour, attempts to investigate the forces driving this long-term behaviour are scarce. This study aims to provide empirical insights into which determinants of probability of sustainable behaviour are associated with AEM participation by Slovenian farmers. Particular attention is given to the drivers of farm and farmland use characteristics. The data used are taken from the Farm Accountancy Data Network for the 2004–2010 period. Logit regressions for Markov transition probability models and a long-term sustainable participation behaviour model are used to explore the existence of distinct characteristics of AEM participation for different sub-periods. The empirical results confirmed that different drivers are associated with sustainable behaviour across time periods and farm types. Land productivity, capital intensity and farm size have significant effects on the probability that a farmer will consistently participate in the AEM programme for at least 5 year period. These findings suggest that farm-specific characteristics are the primary drivers of sustainable behaviour associated with AEM participation.
The analyses focus on the structural change in agriculture and farm households for the selected hilly and mountainous areas in Slovenia before and after the accession to the European Union, with an ...emphasis on empirical analysis of a sample of income diversification of rural households in the census years, and the importance of self-employment for farm households’ well-being and food security. A t-test was applied to investigate the differences of arithmetic means between the two municipalities and between the two census years, and an F-test with analysis of variance was used for the differences of arithmetic means between four socioeconomic types of agricultural households (AHs). The number of farm households has declined with heterogeneous patterns according to their socioeconomic type and their location areas according to the level of economic development and natural farming conditions. Farm exits do not necessarily mean discontinuation of other nonfarming activities at a household. While the number of farm households leaving farming has increased, there has also been an increase in farm households engaged in other gainful activity such as supplementary farm activities and in off-farm employment and off-farm incomes. Income from farming for most households is not sufficient for survival, and therefore, diversification of income for households is imminent. Diversification of income from self-employment is important for more than one-third of households that maintain agri-food production for the market. Income from self-employment is an important source of income for household well-being and for investment in agricultural production to improve incomes from farming activities. Expansion of self-employment impacts the lack of time, business risks, and lack of interest of households to expand the business by renting external sources.
This paper investigates the impact of Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidies on farm employment in Hungary and Slovenia. Econometric models were estimated separately for total farm labor, family ...labor, and hired labor. We find that total subsidies and, within these, Pillar I subsidies, have positive effect on farm employment of paid labor in Hungary and family labor in Slovenia. Irrespective of the country and type of employment, farm employment is significantly positively associated with farm size. Mixed results are found for Pillar II and investment subsidies. Rural development measures with agri-environmental and less favored area subsidies, and investment subsidies are particularly important for the family farm labor in Slovenia, but not for the paid labor, neither the family farm labor in Hungary. The impact of control regional labor market variables is mixed between the employment of family farm and paid labor within and between the analyzed countries. A strong link between main type of farm employment, different types of CAP subsidies and farm size suggests on the importance of CAP subsidies for maintaining of farm employment and job creation for young and unemployed, and land use policy. This might explain farmers political demand for status quo with only minor CAP subsidy changes, with raising society awareness on monitoring of effective and efficient use of subsidies.
•Distinguish different types of policy instruments on different types of farm labor.•Different types of subsidies diversify farm employment and land use.•Pillar I subsidies are positively linked to prevailing type of farm employment.•Farm size increases different types of farm employment.•The level of different types of farm employment may promote land use.
This paper analyzes electricity markets in Slovenia during the specific period of market deregulation and price liberalization. The drivers of electricity prices and electricity consumption are ...investigated. The Slovenian electricity markets are analyzed in relation with the European Energy Exchange (EEX) market. Associations between electricity prices on the one hand, and primary energy prices, variation in air temperature, daily maximum electricity power, and cross-border grid prices on the other hand, are analyzed separately for industrial and household consumers. Monthly data are used in a regression analysis during the period of Slovenia’s electricity market deregulation and price liberalization. Empirical results show that electricity prices achieved in the EEX market were significantly associated with primary energy prices. In Slovenia, the prices for daily maximum electricity power were significantly associated with electricity prices achieved on the EEX market. The increases in electricity prices for households, however, cannot be explained with developments in electricity prices on the EEX market. As the period analyzed is the stage of market deregulation and price liberalization, this can have important policy implications for the countries that still have regulated and monopolized electricity markets. Opening the electricity markets is expected to increase competition and reduce pressures for electricity price increases. However, the experiences and lessons learned among the countries following market deregulation and price liberalization are mixed. For industry, electricity prices affect cost competitiveness, while for households, electricity prices, through expenses, affect their welfare. A competitive and efficient electricity market should balance between suppliers’ and consumers’ market interests. With greening the energy markets and the development of the CO2 emission trading market, it is also important to encourage use of renewable energy sources.
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