ABSTRACT
We present the analysis of a large sample of early‐type galaxies (ETGs) at 0 < z < 3 aimed at tracing the cosmic evolution of their size and compare it with a model of pure dissipationless ...(dry) merging in the Λ cold dark matter (ΛCDM) framework. The effective radius Re depends on stellar mass as with α∼ 0.5 at all redshifts. The redshift evolution of the mass‐ or SDSS‐normalized size can be reproduced as ∝(1 +z)β with β∼−1, with the most massive ETGs possibly showing the fastest evolutionary rate (β∼−1.4). This size evolution slows down significantly to β∼−0.6 if the ETGs at z > 2 are removed from the sample, suggesting an accelerated increase of the typical sizes at z > 2, especially for the ETGs with the largest masses. A pure dry merging ΛCDM model is marginally consistent with the average size evolution at 0 < z < 1.7, but predicts descendants too compact for z > 2 progenitor ETGs. This opens the crucial question on what physical mechanism can explain the accelerated evolution at z > 2, or whether an unclear observational bias is partly responsible for that.
ABSTRACT
In this work, we analyse the connection between gas availability and the position of a region with respect to the spatially resolved main-sequence (MS) relation. Following the procedure ...presented in Enia et al. (2020), for a sample of five face-on, grand design spiral galaxies located on the MS we obtain estimates of stellar mass and star formation rate surface densities (Σ⋆ and ΣSFR) within cells of 500 pc size. Thanks to H i 21cm and 12CO(2–1) maps of comparable resolution, within the same cells we estimate the surface densities of the atomic (ΣH i) and molecular ($\Sigma _{\rm {H_2}}$) gas and explore the correlations among all these quantities. Σ⋆, ΣSFR, and $\Sigma _{\rm {H_2}}$ define a 3D relation whose projections are the spatially resolved MS, the Kennicutt–Schmidt law and the molecular gas MS. We find that $\Sigma _{\rm {H_2}}$ steadily increases along the MS relation and is almost constant perpendicular to it. ΣH i is nearly constant along the MS and increases in its upper envelope. As a result, ΣSFR can be expressed as a function of Σ⋆ and ΣH i, following the relation log ΣSFR = 0.97log Σ⋆ + 1.99log ΣH i − 11.11. We show that the total gas fraction significantly increases towards the starburst regions, accompanied by a weak increase in star formation efficiency. Finally, we find that H2/H i varies strongly with the distance from the MS, dropping dramatically in regions of intense star formation, where the UV radiation from newly formed stars dissociates the H2 molecule, illustrating the self-regulating nature of the star formation process.
Abstract
We present results on the dust attenuation of galaxies at redshift ∼3–6 by studying the relationship between the UV spectral slope (βUV) and the infrared excess (IRX; L
IR/L
UV) using ...Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) far-infrared continuum observations. Our study is based on a sample of 67 massive, star-forming galaxies with a median mass of M
* ∼ 1010.7 M
⊙ spanning a redshift range z = 2.6–3.7 (median z = 3.2) that were observed with ALMA at
$\lambda _{\text{rest}}=300\,{\rm \mu m}$
. Both the individual ALMA detections (41 sources) and stacks including all galaxies show the IRX–βUV relationship at z ∼ 3 is mostly consistent with that of local starburst galaxies on average. However, we find evidence for a large dispersion around the mean relationship by up to ±0.5 dex. Nevertheless, the locally calibrated dust correction factors based on the IRX–βUV relation are on average applicable to main-sequence z ∼ 3 galaxies. This does not appear to be the case at even higher redshifts, however. Using public ALMA observations of z ∼ 4–6 galaxies we find evidence for a significant evolution in the IRX–βUV and the IRX–M
* relations beyond z ∼ 3 towards lower IRX values. We discuss several caveats that could affect these results, including the assumed dust temperature. ALMA observations of larger z > 3 galaxy sample spanning a wide range of physical parameters (e.g. lower stellar mass) will be important to investigate this intriguing redshift evolution further.
We unveil the complex shape of a proto-supercluster at z ∼ 2.45 in the COSMOS field exploiting the synergy of both spectroscopic and photometric redshifts. Thanks to the spectroscopic redshifts of ...the VIMOS Ultra-Deep Survey (VUDS), complemented by the zCOSMOS-Deep spectroscopic sample and high-quality photometric redshifts, we compute the three-dimensional (3D) overdensity field in a volume of ∼100 × 100 × 250 comoving Mpc3 in the central region of the COSMOS field, centred at z ∼ 2.45 along the line of sight. The method relies on a two-dimensional (2D) Voronoi tessellation in overlapping redshift slices that is converted into a 3D density field, where the galaxy distribution in each slice is constructed using a statistical treatment of both spectroscopic and photometric redshifts. In this volume, we identify a proto-supercluster, dubbed “Hyperion” for its immense size and mass, which extends over a volume of ∼60 × 60 × 150 comoving Mpc3 and has an estimated total mass of ∼4.8 × 1015 M⊙. This immensely complex structure contains at least seven density peaks within 2.4 ≲ z ≲ 2.5 connected by filaments that exceed the average density of the volume. We estimate the total mass of the individual peaks, Mtot, based on their inferred average matter density, and find a range of masses from ∼0.1 × 1014 M⊙ to ∼2.7 × 1014 M⊙. By using spectroscopic members of each peak, we obtain the velocity dispersion of the galaxies in the peaks, and then their virial mass Mvir (under the strong assumption that they are virialised). The agreement between Mvir and Mtot is surprisingly good, at less than 1−2σ, considering that (almost all) the peaks are probably not yet virialised. According to the spherical collapse model, these peaks have already started or are about to start collapsing, and they are all predicted to be virialised by redshift z ∼ 0.8−1.6. We finally perform a careful comparison with the literature, given that smaller components of this proto-supercluster had previously been identified using either heterogeneous galaxy samples (Lyα emitters, sub-mm starbursting galaxies, CO emitting galaxies) or 3D Lyα forest tomography on a smaller area. With VUDS, we obtain, for the first time across the central ∼1 deg2 of the COSMOS field, a panoramic view of this large structure, that encompasses, connects, and considerably expands in a homogeneous way on all previous detections of the various sub-components. The characteristics of this exceptional proto-supercluster, its redshift, its richness over a large volume, the clear detection of its sub-components, together with the extensive multi-wavelength imaging and spectroscopy granted by the COSMOS field, provide us the unique possibility to study a rich supercluster in formation.
ABSTRACT
While the kinematics of galaxies up to z ∼ 3 have been characterized in detail, only a handful of galaxies at high redshift (z > 4) have been examined in such a way. The Atacama Large ...Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Large Program to INvestigate C ii at Early times (ALPINE) survey observed a statistically significant sample of 118 star-forming main-sequence galaxies at z = 4.4–5.9 in C ii158 $\mu$m emission, increasing the number of such observations by nearly 10×. A preliminary qualitative classification of these sources revealed a diversity of kinematic types (i.e. rotators, mergers, and dispersion-dominated systems). In this work, we supplement the initial classification by applying quantitative analyses to the ALPINE data: a tilted ring model (TRM) fitting code (3Dbarolo), a morphological classification (Gini-M20), and a set of disc identification criteria. Of the 75 C ii-detected ALPINE galaxies, 29 are detected at sufficient significance and spatial resolution to allow for TRM fitting and the derivation of morphological and kinematic parameters. These 29 sources constitute a high-mass subset of the ALPINE sample ($M_*\gt 10^{9.5}\, \mathrm{M}_{\odot }$). We robustly classify 14 of these sources (six rotators, five mergers, and three dispersion-dominated systems); the remaining sources showing complex behaviour. By exploring the G-M20 of z > 4 rest-frame far-infrared and C ii data for the first time, we find that our 1 arcsec ∼ 6 kpc resolution data alone are insufficient to separate galaxy types. We compare the rotation curves and dynamical mass profiles of the six ALPINE rotators to the two previously detected z ∼ 4–6 unlensed main-sequence rotators, finding high rotational velocities (∼50–250 km s−1) and a diversity of rotation curve shapes.
Abstract
We present ALMA observations at 107.291 GHz (band 3) and 214.532 GHz (band 6) of GMASS 0953, a star-forming galaxy at z = 2.226 hosting an obscured active galactic nucleus (AGN) that has ...been proposed as a progenitor of compact quiescent galaxies (QGs). We measure for the first time the size of the dust and molecular gas emission of GMASS 0953 that we find to be extremely compact (∼1 kpc). This result, coupled with a very high interstellar medium (ISM) density (n ∼ 105.5 cm−3), a low gas mass fraction (∼0.2), and a short gas depletion time-scale (∼150 Myr), implies that GMASS 0953 is experiencing an episode of intense star formation in its central region that will rapidly exhaust its gas reservoirs, likely aided by AGN-induced feedback, confirming its fate as a compact QG. Kinematic analysis of the CO(6–5) line shows evidence of rapidly rotating gas (Vrot = 320$^{+92}_{-53}$ km s−1), as observed also in a handful of similar sources at the same redshift. On-going quenching mechanisms could either destroy the rotation or leave it intact leading the galaxy to evolve into a rotating QG.
ABSTRACT
We analyse the spatially resolved relation between stellar mass (M⋆) and star formation rate (SFR) in disc galaxies (i.e. the main sequence, MS). The studied sample includes eight nearby ...face-on grand-design spirals, e.g. the descendant of high-redshift, rotationally supported star-forming galaxies. We exploit photometric information over 23 bands, from the UV to the far-IR, from the publicly available DustPedia data base to build spatially resolved maps of stellar mass and SFRs on sub-galactic scales of 0.5–1.5 kpc, by performing a spectral energy distribution fitting procedure that accounts for both the observed and obscured star formation processes, over a wide range of internal galaxy environments (bulges, spiral arms, and outskirts). With more than 30 000 physical cells, we have derived a definition of the local spatially resolved MS per unit area for discs, log (ΣSFR) = 0.82log (Σ*) − 8.69. This is consistent with the bulk of recent results based on optical IFU, using the H α line emission as an SFR tracer. Our work extends the analysis at lower sensitivities in both M⋆ and SFR surface densities, up to a factor of ∼10. The self-consistency of the MS relation over different spatial scales, from sub-galactic to galactic, as well as with a rescaled correlation obtained for high-redshift galaxies, clearly proves its universality.
Using spectroscopic observations taken for the Visible Multi-Object Spectrograph (VIMOS) Ultra-Deep Survey (VUDS) we report here on the discovery of PCl J1001+0220, a massive proto-cluster of ...galaxies located at zspec ~ 4.57 in the COSMOS field. With nine spectroscopic members, the proto-cluster was initially detected as a ~12σ spectroscopic overdensity of typical star-forming galaxies in the blind spectroscopic survey of the early universe (2 < z ≲ 6) performed by VUDS. It was further mapped using a new technique developed which statistically combines spectroscopic and photometric redshifts, the latter derived from a recent compilation of incredibly deep multi-band imaging performed on the COSMOS field. Through various methods, the descendant mass of PCl J1001+0220 is estimated to be log (Mh/M⊙)z=0 $\log(\mathcal{M}_{h}/\mathcal{M}_{\odot})_{z=0}$log(Mh/M⊙)z=0 ~ 14.5–15 with a large amount of mass apparently already in place at z ~ 4.57. An exhaustive comparison was made between the properties of various spectroscopic and photometric member samples and matched samples of galaxies inhabiting less dense environments at the same redshifts. Tentative evidence is found for a fractional excess of older galaxies more massive in their stellar content amongst the member samples relative to the coeval field, an observation which suggests the pervasive early onset of vigorous star formation for proto-cluster galaxies. No evidence is found for the differences in the star formation rates (SFRs) of member and coeval field galaxies either through estimating by means of the rest-frame ultraviolet or through separately stacking extremely deep Very Large Array 3 GHz imaging for both samples. Additionally, no evidence for pervasive strong active galactic nuclei (AGN) activity is observed in either environment. Analysis of Hubble Space Telescope images of both sets of galaxies as well as their immediate surroundings provides weak evidence for an elevated incidence of galaxy–galaxy interaction within the bounds of the proto-cluster. The stacked and individual spectral properties of the two samples are compared, with a definite suppression of Lyα seen in the average member galaxy relative to the coeval field ( fesc, Lyα = 1.8−1.7+0.3 $f_{esc, \, \textrm{Ly}\alpha} = 1.8^{+0.3}_{-1.7}$fesc, Lyα=1.8−1.7+0.3% and 4.0−0.8+1.0 $4.0^{+1.0}_{-0.8}$4.0−0.8+1.0%, respectively). This observation along with other lines of evidence leads us to infer the possible presence of a large, cool, diffuse medium within the proto-cluster environment evocative of a nascent intracluster medium forming in the early universe.
The Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) Large Program to INvestigate CII at Early times (ALPINE) targets the CII 158
μ
m line and the far-infrared continuum in 118 spectroscopically confirmed ...star-forming galaxies between
z
= 4.4 and
z
= 5.9. It represents the first large CII statistical sample built in this redshift range. We present details regarding the data processing and the construction of the catalogs. We detected 23 of our targets in the continuum. To derive accurate infrared luminosities and obscured star formation rates (SFRs), we measured the conversion factor from the ALMA 158
μ
m rest-frame dust continuum luminosity to the total infrared luminosity (
L
IR
) after constraining the dust spectral energy distribution by stacking a photometric sample similar to ALPINE in ancillary single-dish far-infrared data. We found that our continuum detections have a median
L
IR
of 4.4 × 10
11
L
⊙
. We also detected 57 additional continuum sources in our ALMA pointings. They are at a lower redshift than the ALPINE targets, with a mean photometric redshift of 2.5 ± 0.2. We measured the 850
μ
m number counts between 0.35 and 3.5 mJy, thus improving the current interferometric constraints in this flux density range. We found a slope break in the number counts around 3 mJy with a shallower slope below this value. More than 40% of the cosmic infrared background is emitted by sources brighter than 0.35 mJy. Finally, we detected the CII line in 75 of our targets. Their median CII luminosity is 4.8 × 10
8
L
⊙
and their median full width at half maximum is 252 km s
−1
. After measuring the mean obscured SFR in various CII luminosity bins by stacking ALPINE continuum data, we find a good agreement between our data and the local and predicted SFR–
L
CII
relations.
Aims.
We study the coevolution between the black hole accretion rate (BHAR) and the star formation rate (SFR) in different phases of galaxy life: main-sequence star-forming galaxies, quiescent ...galaxies, and starburst galaxies at different cosmic epochs.
Methods.
We exploited the unique combination of depth and area in the COSMOS field and took advantage of the X-ray data from the
Chandra
COSMOS-Legacy survey and the extensive multiwavelength ancillary data presented in the COSMOS2015 catalog, including in particular the UVista Ultra-deep observations. These large datasets allowed us to perform an X-ray stacking analysis and combine it with detected sources in a broad redshift interval (0.1 <
z
< 3.5) with unprecedented statistics for normal star-forming, quiescent, and starburst galaxies. The X-ray luminosity was used to predict the black holeAR, and a similar stacking analysis on far-infrared
Herschel
maps was used to measure the corresponding obscured SFR for statistical samples of sources in different redshifts and stellar mass bins.
Results.
We focus on the evolution of the average SFR-stellar mass (
M
*
) relation and compare it with the BHAR-
M
*
relation. This extends previous works that pointed toward the existence of almost linear correlations in both cases. We find that the ratio between BHAR and SFR does not evolve with redshift, although it depends on stellar mass. For the star-forming populations, this dependence on
M
*
has a logarithmic slope of ∼0.6 and for the starburst sample, the slope is ∼0.4. These slopes are both at odds with quiescent sources, where the dependence remains constant (log(BHAR/SFR) ∼ −3.4). By studying the specific BHAR and specific SFR, we find signs of downsizing for
M
*
and black hole mass (
M
BH
) in galaxies in all evolutionary phases. The increase in black hole mass-doubling timescale was particularly fast for quiescents, whose super-massive black holes grew at very early times, while accretion in star-forming and starburst galaxies continued until more recent times.
Conclusions.
Our results support the idea that the same physical processes feed and sustain star formation and black hole accretion in star-forming galaxies while the starburst phase plays a lesser role in driving the growth of the supermassive black holes, especially at high redshift. Our integrated estimates of the
M
*
−
M
BH
relation at all redshifts are consistent with independent determinations of the local
M
*
−
M
BH
relation for samples of active galactic nuclei. This adds key evidence that the evolution in the BHAR/SFR is weak and its normalization is relatively lower than that of local dynamical
M
*
−
M
BH
relations.
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