Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are the most common pediatric diagnoses in the United States. In this perspective article, we propose that a diverse set of motor impairments are present in children ...and adults with ASDs. Specifically, we will discuss evidence related to gross motor, fine motor, postural control, and imitation/praxis impairments. Moreover, we propose that early motor delays within the first 2 years of life may contribute to the social impairments of children with ASDs; therefore, it is important to address motor impairments through timely assessments and effective interventions. Lastly, we acknowledge the limitations of the evidence currently available and suggest clinical implications for motor assessment and interventions in children with ASDs. In terms of assessment, we believe that comprehensive motor evaluations are warranted for children with ASDs and infants at risk for ASDs. In terms of interventions, there is an urgent need to develop novel embodied interventions grounded in movement and motor learning principles for children with autism.
Applied nucleation, mostly based upon planting tree islands, has been proposed as a cost‐effective strategy to meet ambitious global forest and landscape restoration targets.
We review results from a ...15‐year study, replicated at 15 sites in southern Costa Rica, that compares applied nucleation to natural regeneration and mixed‐species tree plantations as strategies to restore tropical forest. We have collected data on planted tree survival and growth, woody vegetation recruitment and structure, seed rain, litterfall, epiphytes, birds, bats and leaf litter arthropods.
Our results indicate that applied nucleation and plantation restoration strategies are similarly effective in enhancing the recovery of most floral and faunal groups, vegetation structure and ecosystem functions, as compared to natural regeneration.
Seed dispersal and woody recruitment are higher in applied nucleation and plantation than natural regeneration treatments; canopy cover has increased substantially in both natural regeneration and applied nucleation treatments; and mortality of planted N‐fixing tree species has increased in recent years. These trends have led to rapid changes in vegetation composition and structure and nutrient cycling.
The applied nucleation strategy is cheaper than mixed‐species tree plantations, but there may be social obstacles to implementing this technique in agricultural landscapes, such as perceptions that the land is not being used productively.
Applied nucleation is likely to be most effective in cases where: planted vegetation nuclei enhance seed dispersal and seedling establishment of other species; the spread of nuclei is not strongly inhibited by abiotic or biotic factors; and the approach is compatible with restoration goals and landowner preferences.
Synthesis and applications. Results from our 15‐year, multi‐site study show that applied nucleation can be a cost‐effective strategy for facilitating tropical forest regeneration that holds promise for helping to meet large‐scale international forest restoration commitments.
Resumen
La nucleación aplicada, basada principalmente en la plantación de islas arbóreas, se ha propuesto como una estrategia económica para cumplir con ambiciosos objetivos mundiales de restauración de bosques y paisajes.
Resumimos los resultados de un estudio de 15 años, replicado en 15 sitios en el sur de Costa Rica, que compara la nucleación aplicada con la regeneración natural y las plantaciones de árboles de especies mixtas como estrategias para restaurar el bosque tropical. Hemos recolectado datos sobre la supervivencia y el crecimiento de los árboles plantados, el reclutamiento y la estructura de la vegetación leñosa, la lluvia de semillas, la caída de hojarasca, las epífitas, las aves, los murciélagos y los artrópodos de la hojarasca.
Nuestros resultados indican que las estrategias de restauración utilizando la nucleación aplicada y plantaciones son igualmente efectivas para mejorar la recuperación de la mayoría de los grupos florales y faunísticos, la estructura de la vegetación y las funciones del ecosistema, en comparación con la regeneración natural.
La dispersión de semillas y el reclutamiento leñoso son mayores en los tratamientos de nucleación aplicada y de plantación que en los tratamientos de regeneración natural; la cobertura del dosel ha aumentado sustancialmente tanto en la regeneración natural como en los tratamientos de nucleación aplicadas; y la mortalidad de las especies arbóreas fijadores de N plantadas ha aumentado en los últimos años. Estas tendencias han llevado a cambios rápidos en la composición y estructura de la vegetación y el ciclo de nutrientes.
La estrategia de nucleación aplicada es más barata que las plantaciones de árboles de especies mixtas, pero pueden existir obstáculos sociales para implementar esta técnica en paisajes agrícolas, como la percepción que la tierra no se está utilizando productivamente.
Es probable que la nucleación aplicada sea más efectiva en los casos en que: los núcleos de vegetación plantados mejoran la dispersión de semillas y el establecimiento de plántulas de otras especies; la propagación de los núcleos no está fuertemente inhibida por factores abióticos o bióticos; y el enfoque es compatible con los objetivos de restauración y las preferencias de los propietarios.
Síntesis y aplicaciones. Resultados de nuestro estudio muestran que la nucleación aplicada puede ser una estrategia económica para facilitar la regeneración forestal que promete ayudar a cumplir los compromisos internacionales de restauración forestal a gran escala.
Results from our 15‐year, multi‐site study show that applied nucleation can be a cost‐effective strategy for facilitating tropical forest regeneration that holds promise for helping to meet large‐scale international forest restoration commitments. (Artist credit: Michelle Pastor)
1. Active forest restoration typically involves planting trees over large areas; this practice is costly, however, and establishing homogeneous plantations may favour the recruitment of a particular ...suite of species and strongly influence the successional trajectory. An alternative approach is to plant nuclei (islands) of trees to simulate the nucleation model of succession and accelerate natural recovery. 2. We evaluated natural tree recruitment over 4 years in a restoration study replicated at eight former pasture sites in the tropical premontane forest zone of southern Costa Rica. At each site, two active restoration strategies were established in 50 × 50 m plots: planting trees throughout, and planting different-sized tree islands (4 × 4, 8 × 8, 12 × 12 m) within the plot. Restoration plots were compared to similar-sized controls undergoing passive restoration. Sites were spread across c. 100 km2 and distributed along a gradient of surrounding forest, allowing us to compare the relative importance of adjacent forest to that of within-site treatment on tree recruitment. 3. Recruitment of animal-dispersed tree species was more than twofold higher in active (μ = 0·45 recruits m-2) as compared to passive restoration; recruitment was equivalent in plantation and island treatments, even though only 20% of the area in island plots was planted originally. The majority of recruits (>90%) represented early successional species (n = 54 species total). 4. Density of animal-dispersed recruits was greater in large (0·80 ± 0·66 m-2) than small (0·28 ± 0·36 m-2) islands and intermediate in medium-sized islands. Seedling recruitment (< 1 m tall) was greater in the interior of islands as compared to plantations, whereas sapling recruitment was similar, suggesting that island interiors may develop greater density of woody recruits as succession proceeds. 5. Surrounding forest cover did not influence density or species richness of recruits among sites, although this factor may become more important over time. 6. Synthesis and applications. Applied nucleation is a promising restoration strategy that can accelerate forest recovery to a similar degree as plantation-style restoration but is more economical. Appropriate island size is on the order of c. 100 m2. Practitioners should consider the methodology as an alternative to large-scale plantings.
A central goal of behavioral medicine is the creation of evidence-based interventions for promoting behavior change. Scientific knowledge about behavior change could be more effectively accumulated ...using “ontologies.” In information science, an ontology is a systematic method for articulating a “controlled vocabulary” of agreed-upon terms and their inter-relationships. It involves three core elements: (1) a controlled vocabulary specifying and defining existing classes; (2) specification of the inter-relationships between classes; and (3) codification in a computer-readable format to enable knowledge generation, organization, reuse, integration, and analysis. This paper introduces ontologies, provides a review of current efforts to create ontologies related to behavior change interventions and suggests future work. This paper was written by behavioral medicine and information science experts and was developed in partnership between the Society of Behavioral Medicine’s Technology Special Interest Group (SIG) and the Theories and Techniques of Behavior Change Interventions SIG. In recent years significant progress has been made in the foundational work needed to develop ontologies of behavior change. Ontologies of behavior change could facilitate a transformation of behavioral science from a field in which data from different experiments are siloed into one in which data across experiments could be compared and/or integrated. This could facilitate new approaches to hypothesis generation and knowledge discovery in behavioral science.
Litterfall and litter decomposition are key elements of nutrient cycling in tropical forests, a process in which decomposer communities such as macro‐arthropods play a critical role. Understanding ...the rate and extent to which ecosystem function and biodiversity recover during succession is useful to managing the growing area of tropical successional forest globally. Using a replicated chronosequence of forest succession (5–15, 15–30, 30–45 years, and primary forest) on abandoned pastures in lowland tropical wet forest, we examined litterfall, litter chemistry, and effects of macro‐arthropod exclusion on decomposition of two litter types (primary and 5‐ to 15‐years‐old secondary forest). Further, we assessed macro‐arthropod diversity and community composition across the chronosequence. Overstory cover, litterfall, and litter nutrients reached levels similar to primary forest within 15–30 years. Young secondary forest litter (5–15 years) had lower initial N and P content, higher C:N, and decayed 60 percent faster than primary forest litter. The presence of macro‐arthropods strongly mediated decomposition and nutrient release rates, increasing litter mass loss by 35–44 percent, N released by 53 percent, and P release by 84 percent. Forest age had no effect on soil nutrients, rates of litter decomposition, nutrient release, or macro‐arthropod influence. In contrast, abundance and community composition of macro‐arthropods remained significantly lower and distinct in all ages of secondary compared with primary forest. Order richness was lower in 5–15 years of secondary compared with primary forest. Our results suggest that in highly productive tropical wet forest, functional recovery of litter dynamics precedes recovery of decomposer community structure and biodiversity.
in Spanish is available with online material.
RESUMO
La producción de hojarasca y su descomposición, son elementos clave en el ciclo de nutrientes en bosques tropicales, un proceso en el cual las comunidades de descomponedores, como los macroartrópodos, desempeñan un papel fundamental. Comprender la velocidad y el grado en que la funcionalidad del ecosistema y la biodiversidad se recuperan durante el proceso de sucesión es útil para manejar un área creciente del bosque tropical en recuperación a nivel mundial. Usando una cronosecuencia de sucesión en bosques tropicales, examinamos la producción y características química de hojarasca y los efectos de la exclusión de macroartrópodos en descomposición de dos tipos de hojarasca (bosque primario y secundario de 5–15 años). Evaluamos la diversidad y composición de comunidad de macroartrópodos en toda la cronosecuencia. La cobertura de dosel, la acumulación y contenido de nutrientes de hojarasca alcanzaron niveles similares a bosque primario en 15–30 años. La hojarasca del bosque secundario joven (5–15 años), tuvo un contenido menor de N y P, mayor de C: N y se descompuso un 60 por ciento más rápido que la hojarasca del bosque primario. La presencia de macroartrópodos influyó fuertemente las tasas de descomposición y liberación de nutrientes, aumentado la pérdida de masa de hojarasca un 35–44 por ciento, la liberación de N un 53 por ciento y de P un 84 por ciento. Edad del bosque no tuvo ningún efecto sobre los nutrientes del suelo, las tasas de descomposición de la hojarasca, la liberación de nutrientes o la influencia de los macroartrópodos. En contraste, la abundancia y la composición comunitaria de los macroartrópodos permanecieron significativamente más bajas y distintas en todas las edades del bosque secundario en comparación con el bosque primario. La riqueza de órdenes de macroartrópodos fue menor en bosque secundario de 5–15 años en comparación con el bosque primario. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la recuperación de la dinámica de la hojarasca precede a la recuperación de la biodiversidad y estructura de la comunidad de descomponedores.
We investigated a multistate outbreak of acute viral non-mumps parotitis (NMP). Understanding epidemiologic and clinical features of viral NMP might improve diagnostic acumen among clinicians ...considering illnesses that could be mumps, resulting in more timely treatment and public health action.
Abstract
Background
During the 2014-2015 US influenza season, 320 cases of non-mumps parotitis (NMP) among residents of 21 states were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). We conducted an epidemiologic and laboratory investigation to determine viral etiologies and clinical features of NMP during this unusually large occurrence.
Methods
NMP was defined as acute parotitis or other salivary gland swelling of >2 days duration in a person with a mumps- negative laboratory result. Using a standardized questionnaire, we collected demographic and clinical information. Buccal samples were tested at the CDC for selected viruses, including mumps, influenza, human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs) 1-4, adenoviruses, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), herpes simplex viruses (HSVs) 1 and 2, and human herpes viruses (HHVs) 6A and 6B.
Results
Among the 320 patients, 65% were male, median age was 14.5 years (range, 0-90), and 67% reported unilateral parotitis. Commonly reported symptoms included sore throat (55%) and fever (48%). Viruses were detected in 210 (71%) of 294 NMP patients with adequate samples for testing, ≥2 viruses were detected in 37 samples, and 248 total virus detections were made among all samples. These included 156 influenza A(H3N2), 42 HHV6B, 32 EBV, 8 HPIV2, 2 HPIV3, 3 adenovirus, 4 HSV-1, and 1 HSV-2. Influenza A(H3N2), HHV6B, and EBV were the most frequently codetected viruses.
Conclusions
Our findings suggest that, in addition to mumps, clinicians should consider respiratory viral (influenza) and herpes viral etiologies for parotitis, particularly among patients without epidemiologic links to mumps cases or outbreaks.
Planting tree seedlings in small patches (islands) has been proposed as a method to facilitate forest recovery that is less expensive than planting large areas and better simulates the nucleation ...process of recovery. We planted seedlings of four tree species at 12 formerly agricultural sites in southern Costa Rica in two designs: plantation (entire 50 × 50 m area planted) and island (six patches of three sizes). We monitored seedling survival, height, and canopy area over 3 years. To elucidate mechanisms influencing survival and growth, we measured soil and foliar nutrients, soil compaction, and photosynthesis. Survival of all species was similar in the two planting designs. Seedling height and canopy area were greater in plantations than islands at most sites, and more seedlings in islands decreased in height due to damage incurred during plot maintenance. Survival, height, and canopy area were both site‐ and species‐specific with the two N‐fixing species (Inga edulis and Erythrina poeppigiana) greater than the other species (Terminalia amazonia and Vochysia guatemalensis). Foliar N was higher in Terminalia and Vochysia in sites where Inga growth was greater. Soil nutrients, however, explained a small amount of the large differences in growth across sites. Leaf mass per area was higher in islands, and P use efficiency was higher in plantations. Our results show advantages (good seedling survival, cheaper) and disadvantages (more seedling damage, slightly lower growth) to the island planting design. Our study highlights the importance of replicating restoration strategies at several sites to make widespread management recommendations.
Non-native ungulates (sheep, goats, and pigs) have significant negative impacts on ecosystem biodiversity, structure, and biogeochemical function throughout the Pacific Islands. Elevated nitrogen (N) ...availability associated with ungulate disturbance has been shown to promote the success of resource-exploitive invasive plants. While ungulate removal is a common restoration intervention, evaluations of its efficacy typically focus on vegetation responses, rather than underlying nutrient cycling. We used multiple chronosequences of ungulate exclusion (10–24 years duration) in three Hawaiian ecosystems (montane wet forest, dry forest, and dry shrubland) to determine N cycle recovery by characterizing gross mineralization and nitrification, soil inorganic N concentrations and leaching, N
2
O emissions, and plant tissue δ
15
N. Ungulate removal led to a 1–2 ‰ decline in foliar δ
15
N in most species, consistent with a long-term decrease in N fractionation via ecosystem N losses, or a shift in the relative turnover of N forms. This interpretation was supported by significant (dry forest) or trending (wet forest) increases in mineralization and decreases in nitrification, but conflicts with lack of observed change in inorganic N pool sizes or gaseous losses, and increased leaching in the dry forest. While results could indicate that ungulate invasions do not strongly impact N cycling in the first place (no uninvaded control sites exist in Hawai’i to test this hypothesis), this would be inconsistent with observations from other sites globally. Instead, impacts may be spatially patchy across the landscape, or ungulate invasions (possibly in combination with other disturbances) may have permanently shifted biogeochemical function or decoupled elemental cycles. We conclude that eliminating ungulate disturbance alone may not achieve restoration goals related to N cycling within the timeframe examined here.
Phasic dopamine (DA) release accompanies approach toward appetitive cues. However, a role for DA in the active avoidance of negative events remains undetermined. Warning signals informing footshock ...avoidance are associated with accumbal DA release, whereas depression of DA is observed with unavoidable footshock. Here, we reveal a causal role of phasic DA in active avoidance learning; specifically, optogenetic activation of DA neurons facilitates avoidance, whereas optical inhibition of these cells attenuates it. Furthermore, stimulation of DA neurons during presentation of a fear-conditioned cue accelerates the extinction of a passive defensive behavior (i.e., freezing). Dopaminergic control of avoidance requires endocannabinoids (eCBs), as perturbing eCB signaling in the midbrain disrupts avoidance, which is rescued by optical stimulation of DA neurons. Interestingly, once the avoidance task is learned, neither DA nor eCB manipulations affect performance, suggesting that once acquisition occurs, expression of this behavior is subserved by other anatomical frameworks. Our findings establish an instrumental role for DA release in learning active responses to aversive stimuli and its control by eCB signaling.
•Optogenetic stimulation of midbrain dopamine cells enhances active avoidance•Accumbal D1 antagonism diminishes avoidance•Midbrain endocannabinoid antagonism attenuates avoidance and dopamine release•Well-learned avoidance is no longer controlled by this endocannabinoid/dopamine signal
Wenzel et al. demonstrate that phasic mesolimbic dopamine promotes behavior motivated by a cue that predicts a negative event. This dopamine signal is controlled by midbrain endocannabinoids. However, once this behavior is well learned, it becomes independent of these systems.
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