Poultry litter is one of the main sources of fluoroquinolones (FQs) in agricultural soils. In this study, our main goal was to investigate FQ-contaminated poultry litter effects on Eisenia andrei ...earthworms. To achieve this, acute and chronic tests covered several endpoints, such as avoidance, biomass, lethality, reproduction and changes to immune cells. FQs (enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin) were determined in a poultry litter sample through high performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector. The avoidance test indicates that poultry litter strongly repels earthworms, even at the lowest concentration (50 g kg−1). In the acute test, the lethal concentration of poultry litter to 50% of the earthworms (LC50), was estimated at 28.5 g kg−1 and a significant biomass loss (p < 0.05) occurred at 40 g kg−1. In the chronic test, a significant reproduction effect was observed at 20 g kg−1. Cell typing, density and feasibility indicated significant effects ranging from 5 to 20 g kg−1. A high risk quotient was estimated based on recommended poultry litter applications in field studies. Although FQ contamination in poultry litter and soils has been widely reported in previous studies, this is, to the best of our knowledge, the first toxicological assessment concerning earthworms exposed to FQ-contaminated poultry litter.
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•High fluoroquinolones levels were detected in a poultry litter sample.•Contaminated poultry litter induces earthworm lethality.•Loss of habitat was observed in earthworms exposed to poultry litter.•Long-term effects, i.e. reproduction decreases and cytotoxicity, were observed.•High environmental risk is estimated to terrestrial ecosystems.
•CBZ, ACT and CD caused zebrafish lipid peroxidation and metal homeostasis breakdown.•Acetamipride caused the greatest adverse effects on exposed zebrafish brains.•Carbamazepine caused the highest ...hepatic oxidative stress levels.•Co-treatments presented lower LPO than single treatments.
Contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) are routinely detected in aquatic environments, especially pharmaceuticals, such as carbamazepine (CBZ), and neonicotinoid pesticides, like acetamiprid (ACT). CECs can interact with each other and with other legislated contaminants like Cd, resulting in unknown effects. Most studies evaluate only the effects of single contaminant exposures on aquatic biota. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to assess the effects of both single and combined CBZ, ACT and Cd exposures on zebrafish brain and liver oxidative stress parameters and metal homeostasis. The biomarkers catalase (CAT), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), total thiols (TOT), metallothionein (MT) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and the essential elements Ca, Cu, K, Na, Mg, Mn and Zn were evaluated after 96-hour static exposures. CBZ, ACT and Cd single (brain and liver) and combined (liver) treatments resulted in oxidative effects in both fish organs, also leading to metal (Ca, Mg, K, Mn, Zn and Cu) homeostasis alterations. ACT exposure resulted in the greatest adverse effects in the brain, while CBZ was the cause of major element homeostasis and oxidative stress alterations in the liver. Lower LPO levels were observed in the combined treatments compared to single treatments, suggesting interactions and contaminant effect attenuation. This study is the first to evaluate the initial effects of combined CBZ, ACT and Cd exposures in zebrafish, paving the way for further investigations concerning other biomarkers during longer exposure times.
Mining is of great relevance to the global economy, but its activities are challenging due to socio-environmental impacts. In January 2019, an iron ore tailings dam collapsed in Brumadinho (Minas ...Gerais, Brazil) releasing 12 × 106 m3 of tailings, causing human losses and devastation around 3.13 × 106 m2 of a watershed. In this context, the present study aimed to investigate the potential toxic effects of tailings from the collapsed dam using earthworms Eisenia andrei as a model organism for terrestrial environments. An extensive set of tests was performed, including behavioral (avoidance), acute (mortality and biomass) and chronic tests, such as biomass, reproduction and cytotoxicity (viability and cell density and change in coelomocyte pattern). The physical-chemical characterization revealed a higher density of the tailings in relation to the control soil, which can result in physical changes, such as soil compaction and surface sealing. Aluminum, Ca, Fe, Hg, Mg, Mn, K, Na and P registered higher concentrations in the tailings compared to the control soil, while Total Nitrogen, Total Organic Carbon and Organic Matter were higher in the natural soil. Based on the avoidance test, an EC50 of 27.18 ± 2.83% was estimated. No lethality was observed in the acute exposure, nor variations in biomass in the acute and chronic assays. However, there was a tendency to reduce the number of juveniles in relation to cocoons in the proportions of 3125; 12.5 and 25%. Significant changes in viability, cell density and pattern of amebocytes and eleocytes were observed up to the 35th day of exposure. A multi-biomarker approach (Integrated Biological Response version 2) indicated concentration-dependent effects and attenuation of cellular changes over time. These are the first results of chronic effects on earthworms exposed to tailings from the B1 dam. Despite being conclusive, we highlight the possible heterogeneity of the tailings and the necessary care in extrapolating the results.
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•Lethality and biomass changes were not observed in acute exposure.•First assessment of chronic effects on earthworms exposed to the tailings.•Changes in viability, cell density and coelomocyte pattern were observed.•Chronic effects at the cellular level decreased over time.•A multi-biomarker approach indicated concentration-dependent effects.
The final disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW) in dumpsites is still a reality worldwide, especially in low- and middle-income countries, leading to leachate-contaminated zones. Therefore, the aim ...of this study was to carry out soil and leachate physicochemical, microbiological, and toxicological characterizations from a non-operational dumpsite. The L-01 pond samples presented the highest physicochemical parameters, especially chloride (Cl; 4101 ± 44.8 mg L
−1
), electrical conductivity (EC; 10,452 ± 0.1 mS cm
−1
), and chemical oxygen demand (COD; 760 ± 6.6 mg L
−1
) indicating the presence of leachate, explained by its close proximity to the landfill cell. Pond L-03 presented higher parameters compared to pond L-02, except for N-ammoniacal and phosphorus levels, explained by the local geological configuration, configured as a slope from the landfill cell towards L-03. Seven filamentous and/or yeast fungi genera were identified, including the opportunistic pathogenic fungi
Candida krusei
(4 CFU) in an outcrop sample. Regarding soil samples, Br, Se, and I were present at high concentrations leading to high soil contamination (CF ≤ 6). Pond L-02 presented the highest CF for Br (18.14 ± 18.41 mg kg
−1
) and I (10.63 ± 3.66 mg kg
−1
), while pond L-03 presented the highest CF for Se (7.60 ± 1.33 mg kg
−1
). The most severe lethal effect for
Artemia salina
was observed for L-03 samples (LC
50
: 79.91%), while only samples from L-01 were toxic to
Danio rerio
(LC
50
: 32.99%). The highest lethality for
Eisenia andrei
was observed for L-02 samples (LC
50
: 50.30%). The applied risk characterization indicates high risk of all proposed scenarios for both aquatic (RQ 375–909) and terrestrial environments (RQ > 1.4 × 10
5
). These findings indicate that the investigated dumpsite is contaminated by both leachate and metals, high risks to living organisms and adjacent water resources, also potentially affecting human health.
A mining tailing dam rupture in Brazil in November 2015 released millions of tons of mining waste into the Rio Doce ecosystem, leading to long-term aquatic ecosystem impacts. Although multiple lines ...of evidence indicate tailings associations with potentially toxic elements in estuarine sediments and biological impact and bioaccumulation pathways in fishes, the extent of contamination in base benthic species is still largely unknown. Moreover, Rare Earth Elements (REE) have not received any attention in this regard. This study assessed REE in fiddler crabs (Minuca rapax) sampled from the Rio Doce estuary in 2017, nearly 2 years after the disaster. The ΣREE in crab hepatopancreas and muscle were high (327.83 mg kg
w.w. and 33.84 mg kg
w.w., respectively, compared to other assessments in crabs, indicating a preference for REE bioaccumulation in the hepatopancreas compared to muscle. Neodimium, La, and Ce were detected at the highest concentrations. The REE from the Rio Doce Basin were, thus, transported and deposited in the estuary with the mine tailings slurry, leading to bioaccumulation in crabs. This may lead to trophic effects and other ecological impacts not readily measured by typical impact assessment studies, revealing an invisible and not typically acknowledged damage to the Rio Doce estuary.
Poultry litter is widely applied as a fertilizer even though it is one of the main antibiotic sources to agricultural soils. Long-term sublethal effects (56 days) on the antioxidant system of
Eisenia ...andrei
earthworms following exposure to fluoroquinolone-contaminated poultry litter (enrofloxacin + ciprofloxacin) at 5.0, 10, and 20 g kg
−1
were evaluated. The following biomarkers were assessed: superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), reduced glutathione (GSH), and a lipid peroxidation (LPO) proxy. Significant CAT and SOD increases, and a moderate positive correlation (
ρ
= 0.67,
p
< 0.05) between these enzymes was observed. Glutathione-S-transferase levels increased significantly at 10 g kg
−1
, while GSH exhibited a dose-dependent response at 5.0 mg kg
−1
(4–106%), 10 mg kg
−1
(28–330 %), and 20 mg kg
−1
(45–472%). LPO levels exhibited a decreasing trend with increasing poultry litter concentrations of 8–170% (5.0 g kg
−1
), 7–104% (10 mg kg
−1
), and 3–6% (20 mg kg
−1
). A principal component analysis (PCA) highlighted increased SOD and CAT activities, possibly due to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentrations. Biological health status assessments based on the biomarker response index indicate major alterations in the first month of exposure and becoming moderate in the second month. These findings indicate an antioxidant system attenuation trend. It is possible, however, that successive poultry litter applications may reduce the long-term recovery capacity of the evaluated biomarkers.
Leachate, an effluent produced during solid waste decomposition, interacts directly with soil, mainly in dumpsite areas. Studies on terrestrial animal exposure to leachate are, however, lacking. ...Plants are the most frequently studied organisms, while animal studies, especially earthworms, are limited. Nevertheless, ecotoxicological assessments involving earthworms are crucial due to their role in soil health and ecosystem maintenance, which are paramount in understanding potential terrestrial ecosystem leachate effects. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate behavioral effects, sublethal cytotoxicity and antioxidant system alterations in Eisenia andrei earthworms chronically exposed to leachate from a closed dumpsite. Cytotoxicity was determined by coelomocyte density, viability and cell typing, while antioxidant system alterations were assessed through superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), reduced glutathione (GSH) and metallothionein (MT) determinations. Malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein carbonylation (PTC) levels were also determined as oxidative effect markers. Finally, the Biomarker Response Index (BRI) was assessed, aiming to quantitatively integrate the results of the investigated endpoints and establish a biological health state (BHS) for each leachate concentration. Leachate exposure led to leak responses at concentrations of up to 50%, but attraction at higher concentrations. Decreased cell density (28%) was observed after 48 days and reduced viability (50%), after 14 days of leachate exposure. The observed cell typing changes indicate anti-inflammatory immune system effects. Leachate exposure led to several antioxidant system alterations, increasing SOD (2–6 %), CAT (5–35 %) and GST (5–70 %) activities and GSH (7–37%) and MT (3–67%) levels. Earthworm antioxidant defenses were, however, able to prevent lipid peroxidation, which decreased (11–37%) following leachate exposure to concentrations above 12.5%, and PTC, which increased at 42 days (26%) and reduced at 56 days (12 %). This is the first PTC assessment in leachate-exposed earthworms. The increased carbonylation levels observed after 42 days alongside MDA decreases highlight the need for further research employing oxidative effect biomarkers other than MDA. Finally, an integrated approach employing the BRI was carried out, revealing mild initial changes evolving to moderate to major effects at the highest leachate exposure concentration, with an effect attenuation detected at the end of the experiment. In this sense, this study brings forth a significant novelty, employing a biomarker previously not assessed in earthworms, demonstrating an oxidative effect, alongside the use of the BRI as an integrative tool for the endpoints applied in this assessment.
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•Earthworm avoidance was observed at leachate exposure concentrations below 50%.•Cell type alterations were observed in exposed earthworms.•Antioxidant system alterations were detected in the form of increasing enzyme activities.•Non-enzymatic effects were also detected in the form of increased GSH and MT.•Antioxidant defenses were able to reduce MDA levels and prevent protein carbonylation.
Bioremediation is very efficient in biodegrading petroleum hydrocarbons. However, the decrease in these target contaminants in soils is not necessarily followed by a decrease in toxicity. The ...remaining contaminants can be enough to retain toxicity, while incomplete degradation of several compounds can generate sub-products, which can be even more toxic. In this context, the aim of this study was to assess acute and chronic toxicity in
Eisenia andrei
exposed to soil contaminated with 5% spent lubricant oil before and after 22 months of bioremediation in 150 L aerobic reactors. Applied bioremediation strategies were biostimulation (BIOS), bioaugmentation by adding mature compost from municipal solid waste (BIOA
1
) and bioaugmentation by adding non-mature compost from municipal solid waste (BIOA
2
). After 22 months, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) were reduced 71% in BIOS and 73% in both BIOA
1
and BIOA
2
. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were reduced in about 98% in all treatments (BIOS, BIOA
1
and BIOA
2
). At the 14
th
day of exposure, mortality rates were 7 ± 2, 20 ± 0, 75 ± 25, 93 ± 12 and 100 ± 0% for
Eisenia andrei
exposed to CONT (soil with no oil addition), BIOS, OLU (soil newly contaminated with 5% spent oil), BIOA
1
and BIOA
2
, respectively. After 14 days, surviving specimens in both BIOS and OLU soils exhibited anatomic deformations, less biomass than the controls, and decrease in juvenile forms and coelomocytes. After 28 days, the mortality rate for BIOS and OLU soils increased to 97 and 100%, respectively. Therefore, even with a reduction of 71–73% for TPH and 98% for PAH, toxic effects remained in all soils bioremediated, probably due to the remaining hydrocarbons and/or hydrocarbon biodegradation products. The results indicate that both chemical analyses and toxicological monitoring are required to follow-up soil remediation progress.
Although considered an emerging contaminant and detected in the environment, the systematic and penetration fungicide imazalil ((RS)-1-(β-allyloxy-2,4-dichlorophenylethyl) imidazole) has received ...relatively little scientific attention with regard to its possible negative effects in the environment. Only a few toxicological studies have assessed the potential environmental effect of imazalil and its impact on organisms. In this context, the aim of the present study is to evaluate the effects of different concentrations of the pesticide imazalil on the earthworm
Eisenia andrei
in acute contact and chronic tests in natural soil. Moreover, several endpoints, such as biomass loss or gain, reproduction, behavior, effects on immune system cells, and oxidative stress were also evaluated. Imazalil toxicity to
E. andrei
was determined by three approaches: a filter paper contact test (0, 0.16, 1.66, 16.6, 166 μg.cm
−2
), an avoidance (0, 0.1, 1, and 10 mg.kg
−1
), and a chronic test for 45 days (0, 0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 mg.kg
−1
). All organisms exposed to the filter paper contact and chronic tests were submitted to two endpoint analyses: first, coelomic fluid collection by the extrusion method to determine density, viability, and cell type; second, oxidative stress assessments by determining GST and CAT enzymatic activities. This study allows for the conclusion that imazalil does not cause immediate earthworm death after exposure (LC
50
> 166 μg.cm
−1
). However, due to several complementary factors, this compound may compromise earthworm health and lead to death, as
E. andrei
individuals did not avoid the contaminated soil, thus contributing to longer exposure periods and consequent cumulative damage to their systems. Decreased immunocompetent cellular viability (
p
< 0.05) and density (
p
< 0.05) in the chronic test are noteworthy, leading to susceptibility to exogenous factors, as well as irreversible cellular damage provoked by oxidative stress, such as cellular membrane rupture.
Leachate is a highly complex waste with high toxicological potential that poses a significant threat to the terrestrial environment. Determining leachate physicochemical parameters and identifying ...xenobiotics alone is, however, not enough to determine the real environmental impacts. In this context, the use of terrestrial model organisms has been highlighted as a tool in ecotoxicological leachate assessments and as a guiding principle in risk assessments. In this context, this review aimed to present the most current state of knowledge concerning leachate toxicity and the bioassays employed in this evaluation concerning terrestrial plants and animals. To this end, a literature search on leachate effects on terrestrial organisms was carried out using ten search terms, in 32 different combinations, at the Web of Science and Scopus databases. A total of 74 eligible articles were selected. The retrieved studies analyzed 42 different plant and animal species and employed nine endpoints, namely phytotoxicity, genotoxicity, bioaccumulation, antioxidant system, cytotoxicity, reproduction, physiological changes, behavior and lethality. A frequent association of toxic leachate effects with metals was observed, mainly Pb, Cd, Cr, Mg, Zn and Cr, which can cause antioxidant system alterations and cyto- and genotoxicity. These elements have also been associated to reproductive effects in earthworms and mice. Specifically concerning plants, most of the retrieved studies employed Allium cepa in toxicity assays, reporting phytotoxic effects frequently associated to metals and soil parameter changes. Animal studies, on the other hand, mostly employed mice and evaluated genotoxicity and antioxidant system effects. Even with the description of toxic leachate effects in both plants and animals, a lack of knowledge is still noted concerning reproductive, physiological, cytotoxic, and behavioral effects in terrestrial species. We, thus, suggest that further studies be carried out on other animals, advancing our understanding on potential environmental leachate effects, also allowing for human health risk assessments.
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•Allium cepa and mice are the most employed organisms in leachate evaluations.•Pb, Cd, Cr, Mg, Zn and Cr, are the most associated with organismal effects.•Phytotoxicity in plants and genotoxicity in animals were the most studied endpoints.•Cyto- and genotoxicity were the most explored endpoints.•The antioxidant system was the fourth most studied endpoint.
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