Following the Great Depression and related home foreclosures, the federal government established new agencies to facilitate access to affordable home mortgages, including the Home Owners’ Loan ...Corporation (HOLC) and Federal Housing Administration (FHA). HOLC and FHA directed widespread neighborhood appraisals to determine investment risk, referred to as “redlining,” which took into account residents’ race. Redlining thereby contributed to segregation, disinvestment, and racial inequities in opportunities for homeownership and wealth accumulation. Recent research examines associations between historical redlining and subsequent environmental determinants of health and health-related outcomes. In this scoping review, we assess the extent of the current body of evidence, the range of outcomes studied, and key study characteristics, examining the direction and strength of the relationship between redlining, neighborhood environments, and health as well as different methodological approaches. Overall, studies nearly universally report evidence of an association between redlining and health-relevant outcomes, although heterogeneity in study design precludes direct comparison of results. We critically consider evidence regarding HOLC’s causality and offer a conceptual framework for the relationship between redlining and present-day health. Finally, we point to key directions for future research to improve and broaden understanding of redlining’s enduring impact and translate findings into public health and planning practice.
To evaluate universal access to clean drinking water by characterizing relationships between community sociodemographics and water contaminants in California domestic well areas (DWAs) and community ...water systems (CWSs).
We integrated domestic well locations, CWS service boundaries, residential parcels, building footprints, and 2013-2017 American Community Survey data to estimate sociodemographic characteristics for DWAs and CWSs statewide. We derived mean drinking and groundwater contaminant concentrations of arsenic, nitrate, and hexavalent chromium (CrVI) between 2011 and 2019 and used multivariate models to estimate relationships between sociodemographic variables and contaminant concentrations.
We estimated that more than 1.3 million Californians (3.4%) use domestic wells and more than 370 000 Californians rely on drinking water with average contaminant concentrations at or above regulatory standards for 1 or more of the contaminants considered. Higher proportions of people of color were associated with greater drinking water contamination.
Poor water quality disproportionately impacts communities of color in California, with the highest estimated arsenic, nitrate, and Cr(VI) concentrations in areas of domestic well use. Domestic well communities must be included in efforts to achieve California's Human Right to Water. (
. 2022;112(1):88-97. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306561).
Over the past decade, increases in high-volume hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas extraction in the United States have raised concerns with residents living near wells. Flaring, or the combustion ...of petroleum products into the open atmosphere, is a common practice associated with oil and gas exploration and production, and has been under-examined as a potential source of exposure. We leveraged data from the Visible Infrared Imaging Spectroradiometer (VIIRS) Nightfire satellite product to characterize the extent of flaring in the Eagle Ford Shale region of south Texas, one of the most productive in the nation. Spatiotemporal hierarchical clustering identified flaring sources, and a regression-based approach combining VIIRS information with reported estimates of vented and flared gas from the Railroad Commission of Texas enabled estimation of flared gas volume at each flare. We identified 43887 distinct oil and gas flares in the study region from 2012 to 2016, with a peak in activity in 2014 and an estimated 4.5 billion cubic meters of total gas volume flared over the study period. A comparison with well permit data indicated the majority of flares were associated with oil-producing (82%) and horizontally drilled (92%) wells. Of the 49 counties in the region, 5 accounted for 71% of the total flaring. Our results suggest flaring may be a significant environmental exposure in parts of this region.
Prior studies suggest exposure to oil and gas development (OGD) adversely affects birth outcomes, but no studies have examined flaring-the open combustion of natural gas-from OGD.
We investigated ...whether residential proximity to flaring from OGD was associated with shorter gestation and reduced fetal growth in the Eagle Ford Shale of south Texas.
We conducted a retrospective cohort study using administrative birth records from 2012 to 2015 (
) and satellite observations of flaring activity during pregnancy within
of maternal residence. Multivariate logistic and linear regression models were used to estimate associations between four outcomes (preterm birth, small-for-gestational age, continuous gestational age, and term birthweight) and exposure to a low (1-9) or high (
) number of nightly flare events, as compared with no exposure, while controlling for known maternal risk factors. We also examined associations with the number of oil and gas wells within
using data from DrillingInfo (now Enverus).
Exposure to a high number of nightly flare events was associated with a 50% higher odds of preterm birth
(95% CI: 1.23, 1.83) and shorter gestation
(95% CI:
,
) d compared with no exposure. Effect estimates were slightly reduced after adjustment for the number of wells within
. In stratified models these associations were present only among Hispanic women. Flaring and fetal growth outcomes were not significantly associated. Women exposed to a high number of wells (fourth quartile,
) vs. no wells within
had a higher odds of preterm birth
(95% CI: 1.14, 1.49), shorter gestation
(95% CI:
,
) d, and lower average birthweight
(95% CI:
,
) g.
Our study suggests exposure to flaring from OGD is associated with an increased risk of preterm birth. Our findings need to be confirmed in other populations. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP6394.
Studies suggest associations between oil and gas development (OGD) and adverse birth outcomes, but few epidemiological studies of oil wells or inactive wells exist, and none in California.
Our study ...aimed to investigate the relationship between residential proximity to OGD and birth outcomes in California.
We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 2,918,089 births to mothers living within 10 km of at least one production well between January 1, 2006 and December 31, 2015. We estimated exposure during pregnancy to inactive wells count (no inactive wells, 1 well, 2-5 wells, 6+ wells) and production volume from active wells in barrels of oil equivalent (BOE) (no BOE, 1-100 BOE/day,
). We used generalized estimating equations to examine associations between overall and trimester-specific OGD exposures and term birth weight (tBW), low birth weight (LBW), preterm birth (PTB), and small for gestational age birth (SGA). We assessed effect modification by urban/rural community type.
Adjusted models showed exposure to active OGD was associated with adverse birth outcomes in rural areas; effect estimates in urban areas were close to null. In rural areas, increasing production volume was associated with stronger adverse effect estimates. High (
) vs. no production throughout pregnancy was associated with increased odds of LBW odds ratio
, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14, 1.71 and SGA (
, 95% CI: 1.02, 1.45), and decreased tBW (mean difference = -36 grams, 95% CI: -54, -17), but not with PTB (
, 95% CI: 0.91, 1.18).
Proximity to higher production OGD in California was associated with adverse birth outcomes among mothers residing in rural areas. Future studies are needed to confirm our findings in other populations and improve exposure assessment measures. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5842.
Telomere length in early life predicts later length, and shortened telomere length among adults and children has been linked to increased risk of chronic disease and mortality. Maternal stress during ...pregnancy may impact telomere length of the newborn.
In a diverse cohort of 355 pregnant women receiving prenatal and delivery care services at two hospitals in San Francisco, California, we investigated the relationship between self-reported maternal psychosocial stressors during the 2nd trimester of pregnancy and telomere length (T/S ratio) in newborn umbilical cord blood leukocytes. We examined financial strain, food insecurity, high job strain, poor neighborhood quality, low standing in one's community, experience of stressful/traumatic life events, caregiving for a dependent family member, perceived stress, and unplanned pregnancy. We used linear regression and Targeted Minimum Loss-Based Estimation (TMLE) to evaluate the change in the T/S ratio associated with exposure to each stressor controlling for maternal age, education, parity, race/ethnicity, and delivery hospital.
In TMLE analyses, low community standing (-0.09; 95% confidence interval CI-0.19 to 0.00) and perceived stress (-0.07; 95% CI -0.15 to 0.021 was marginally associated with shorter newborn telomere length, but the associations were not significant after adjusting for multiple comparisons. All linear regression estimates were not statistically significant. Our results also suggest that the association between some maternal stressors and newborn telomere length varies by race/ethnicity and infant sex.
This study is the first to examine the joint effect of multiple stressors during pregnancy on newborn TL using a flexible modeling approach.
Rebates incentivize clean vehicle adoption but may raise equity concerns because upfront capital is required for vehicle acquisition, limiting access for low-income households. Since poorer ...communities typically experience worse air quality than their wealthier counterparts, rebates also may not incentivize clean vehicle acquisitions in more polluted areas where air quality benefits would be greater. We analyzed whether equity-promoting policy design elements changed the associations between rebate allocation rates and census tract characteristics including community disadvantage, household income, education, race and ethnicity, and ambient air pollution in two California rebate programs. We found that the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project issued more rebates per household to advantaged, higher-income, better-educated communities with more White residents and intermediate levels of ambient nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
). An income cap and income-tiered rebate amount introduced part way through the program improved distributional equity, but fewer rebates were still issued to lower income, less-educated census tracts with higher percentages of Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black residents. Furthermore, these policy design elements reduced the overall number of rebates that were distributed. In the Enhanced Fleet Modernization Program, which incorporates additional equity-related design elements, rebate allocation rates were positively associated with community disadvantage, lower income and education, and a higher proportion of Hispanics, and were the highest in areas with slightly higher NO
2
levels. These findings indicate that design elements such as an income cap, income-tiered rebate amounts, expanded vehicle eligibility, and increased benefit eligibility in disadvantaged communities, can facilitate distribution of rebates to more socioeconomically diverse populations with higher air pollution burdens.
Abstract
Due to advances in unconventional extraction techniques, the rate of fossil fuel production in the United States (US) is higher than ever before. The disposal of waste gas via intentional ...combustion (flaring) from unconventional oil and gas (UOG) development has also been on the rise, and may expose nearby residents to toxic air pollutants, light pollution and noise. However, little data exists on the extent of flaring in the US or the number of people living near UOG flaring activity. Utilizing nightly sattelite observations of flaring from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite Nightfire product, 2010 Census data and a dataset of remotely sensed building footprints, we applied a dasymetric mapping approach to estimate the number of nightly flare events across all oil shale plays in the contiguous US between March 2012 and February 2020 and characterize the populations residing within 3 km, 5 km and 10 km of UOG flares in terms of age, race and ethnicity. We found that three basins accounted for over 83% of all UOG flaring activity in the contiguous US over the 8 year study period. We estimated that over half a million people in these basins reside within 5 km of a flare, and 39% of them lived near more than 100 nightly flares. Black, indigenous, and people of color were disproportionately exposed to flaring.
Abstract
Background
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used in consumer products for their water repellent and flame retardant properties, respectively. ...However, there is widespread prenatal exposure and concern about their potential harm to the developing fetus. Here, we utilized data from a demographically diverse cohort of women in San Francisco, CA to examine associations between prenatal exposure to PFAS and PBDEs with gestational age and birth weight for gestational age z-scores.
Methods
Women included in this analysis were enrolled in the Chemicals in our Bodies (CIOB) cohort study (
N
= 506). PFAS and PBDEs were measured in serum obtained during the second trimester of pregnancy. Linear regression models were used to calculate crude and adjusted β coefficients for the association between PFAS and PBDE concentrations in tertiles and gestational age and birth weight z-scores. Individual PFAS and PBDE concentrations, as well as their sums, were examined in separate models.
Results
The highest compared to lowest tertile of BDE-47 was associated with shorter gestational age (β = − 0.49, 95% confidence interval CI = − 0.95, − 0.02). Additionally, exposure to BDE-47 and BDE-99 in the middle tertile was also associated with a reduction in birth weight z-scores (β = − 0.26, 95% CI = -0.48, − 0.04; β = − 0.25, 95% CI = -0.47, − 0.04, respectively) compared to those in the lowest tertile of exposure. No consistent associations were observed between increasing PFAS concentrations and gestational age or birth weight z-scores.
Discussion
Among a diverse group of pregnant women in the San Francisco Bay Area, we found non-linear associations between prenatal exposure to PBDEs during the second trimester of pregnancy and birth weight z-scores. However, most PFAS congeners were not associated with adverse birth outcomes. PFAS and PBDE concentrations were lower in our cohort relative to other studies. Future research should assess the effects of emerging and persistent PFAS and PBDEs on birth outcomes, as some congeners are being phased out and replaced by chemically similar structures.
Purpose of Review
Climate change is causing warming over most parts of the USA and more extreme weather events. The health impacts of these changes are not experienced equally. We synthesize the ...recent evidence that climatic changes linked to global warming are having a disparate impact on the health of people of color, including children.
Recent Findings
Multiple studies of heat, extreme cold, hurricanes, flooding, and wildfires find evidence that people of color, including Black, Latinx, Native American, Pacific Islander, and Asian communities are at higher risk of climate-related health impacts than Whites, although this is not always the case. Studies of adults have found evidence of racial disparities related to climatic changes with respect to mortality, respiratory and cardiovascular disease, mental health, and heat-related illness. Children are particularly vulnerable to the health impacts of climate change, and infants and children of color have experienced adverse perinatal outcomes, occupational heat stress, and increases in emergency department visits associated with extreme weather.
Summary
The evidence strongly suggests climate change is an environmental injustice that is likely to exacerbate existing racial disparities across a broad range of health outcomes.
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