Stomoxys flies are mechanical vectors of pathogens present in the blood and skin of their animal hosts, especially livestock, but occasionally humans. In livestock, their direct effects are ...disturbance, skin lesions, reduction of food intake, stress, blood loss, and a global immunosuppressive effect. They also induce the gathering of animals for mutual protection; meanwhile they favor development of pathogens in the hosts and their transmission. Their indirect effect is the mechanical transmission of pathogens. In case of interrupted feeding, Stomoxys can re-start their blood meal on another host. When injecting saliva prior to blood-sucking, they can inoculate some infected blood remaining on their mouthparts. Beside this immediate transmission, it was observed that Stomoxys may keep some blood in their crop, which offers a friendly environment for pathogens that could be regurgitated during the next blood meal; thus a delayed transmission by Stomoxys seems possible. Such a mechanism has a considerable epidemiological impact since it allows inter-herd transmission of pathogens. Equine infectious anemia, African swine fever, West Nile, and Rift Valley viruses are known to be transmitted by Stomoxys, while others are suspected. Rickettsia (Anaplasma, Coxiella), other bacteria and parasites (Trypanosoma spp., Besnoitia spp.) are also transmitted by Stomoxys. Finally, Stomoxys was also found to act as an intermediate host of the helminth Habronema microstoma and may be involved in the transmission of some Onchocerca and Dirofilaria species. Being cosmopolite, Stomoxys calcitrans might have a worldwide and greater impact than previously thought on animal and human pathogen transmission.
Les stomoxes sont des vecteurs mécaniques de pathogènes présents dans le sang et les tissus cutanés de leurs hôtes, spécialement le bétail, mais aussi parfois les humains. Pour le bétail, leurs effets directs sont principalement la perturbation des animaux, les lésions de la peau, la réduction de l’alimentation, le stress, la spoliation sanguine et un effet immunosuppressif global. Ils entrainent aussi le regroupement des animaux pour une protection mutuelle ; tout cela favorise le développement des parasites chez les hôtes et leur transmission. Leur effet indirect est la transmission mécanique de pathogènes. En cas de repas interrompu, les stomoxes peuvent reprendre leur repas de sang sur un autre hôte. En injectant de la salive avant l’absorption de sang, ils peuvent inoculer du sang infecté qui restait sur leurs pièces buccales. En plus de cette transmission immédiate, il a été observé que les stomoxes pouvaient conserver du sang dans leur jabot, qui offre un meilleur environnement pour les pathogènes. Ces derniers peuvent être régurgités lors du prochain repas de sang. Ainsi, une transmission retardée semble possible par les stomoxes. Un tel mécanisme a une conséquence épidémiologique considérable, puisqu’il permet une transmission de pathogènes entre les troupeaux. Les virus de l’anémie infectieuse équine, de la fièvre porcine africaine, des fièvres à West Nile ou de la Vallée du Rift, sont connus pour être transmis par des stomoxes ; d’autres sont suspectés. Des rickettsies (Anaplasma, Coxiella), d’autres bactéries et des parasites (Trypanosoma spp., Besnoitia spp.) sont aussi transmis par les stomoxes. Enfin, les stomoxes sont aussi des hôtes intermédiaires de l’helminthe Habronema microstoma et pourraient être impliqués dans la transmission de certaines espèces d’Onchocerca et de Dirofilaria. En étant cosmopolite, Stomoxys calcitrans pourrait avoir un impact plus important qu’initialement imaginé sur la transmission de pathogènes aux animaux et aux humains.
Tabanids and stable flies are important nuisances to livestock and sometimes humans. Nzi, Vavoua, and Biconical traps or insecticide-impregnated blue screens are commonly used to attract and catch ...these flies. Such devices are made of a specific cotton or cotton-polyester phthalogen blue fabric acting as a visual attractant. However, the cost of cotton fabrics is high, and they are no longer available due to toxic dyes. The present study compared four blue polyester fabrics produced in Thailand with a reference blue cotton-polyester fabric made in France by TDV® to attract hematophagous flies. Vavoua traps and blue screens covered with a sticky film made with the five different blue fabrics were compared. The TDV® had the highest trapping scores; however, there was no significant difference between TDV® and some polyester fabrics. Among the tested polyester fabrics, CR Solon No.41 was nearly as effective as the TDV® in attracting biting flies. The mean attractivity indices of CR Solon No.41, NS No.1469, Globe 2000 No.21, Globe 2000 No.34 were 0.86, 0.79, 0.69, and 0.39, respectively. Thus, we recommend that CR Solon No.41 would be the appropriate fabric for the further development of low-cost and optimized screens and traps in Thailand and other countries.
Stomoxys calcitrans
(Diptera: Muscidae), is an important vector of lumpy skin disease and bovine besnoitiosis in Europe. Control of this biting fly could represent a keystone in the containment of ...this emerging disease. Reports of insecticide resistance in
S. calcitrans
are scarce in Europe. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the phenotypic susceptibility to deltamethrin, cypermethrin and phoxim of five wild
S. calcitrans
populations from southwestern France, where transmission of bovine besnoitiosis is very prevalent. Adult
S. calcitrans
were caught at each study site and exposed to insecticide-impregnated filter papers under laboratory conditions. Quantities of active ingredients on filter papers corresponded to the recommended doses proposed by the manufacturers (37.5 mg a.i./m
2
of cattle’s skin, 125 mg a.i./m
2
and 750 mg a.i./m
2
for deltamethrin, cypermethrin and phoxim respectively) were tested. Knock-down effects (KD) (1 h after the onset of exposure) and mortality rates (24 h and 48 h after exposure) were evaluated. Phoxim showed a rapid and full efficacy in all populations. However, the KD effects (37.5 to 97.5%) and the mortality rates at 48 h (10 to 91.25%) induced by the exposure to pyrethroids varied greatly according to the study site but none of the populations showed full susceptibility. Therefore, the current recommended doses of these pyrethroids are probably less efficient than expected in the field and should be considered with caution in the control of bovine besnoitiosis in France.
The horse flies of El Tarf Province, northeastern Algeria comprise 15 species within two subfamilies (Chrysopsinae and Tabaninae) belonging to five genera (Atylotus, Chrysops, Dasyrhamphis, ...Haematopota, and Tabanus). The genera Chrysops, Dasyrhamphis, and Haematopota are represented by two species for each, while the genera Atylotus and Tabanus are represented by four and five species, respectively. Seasonal abundance was assessed from mid-March until the end of September, 2017 for the trapped species. Haematopota pluvialis and Tabanus autumnalis appeared in April and lasted until September with a peak in May. Atylotus agrestis appeared in May with the highest density and lasted until September. Atylotus fulvus, Atylotus kroberi, and Haematopota italica emerged in April with peaks in May, while Chrysops flavipes appeared in March, reaching its peak in May and June, declining in July, and disappearing thereafter. Atylotus flavoguttatus, Chrysops mauritanicus, and Dasyrhamphis tomentosus appeared in April with a peak in June, then disappearing in August. Tabanus nemoralis started to appear in April with a peak in May and disappearance after July. Dasyrhamphis algirus, Tabanus bromius, and Tabanus eggeri started to appear in May. Both Tabanus eggeri and Dasyrhamphis algirus peaked in June and July, whereas T. eggeri lasted until the end of September. Tabanus tinctus was observed in June with a peak in August and lasted until September.
Les stomoxes (Diptera : Muscidae : Stomoxyinae) sont des insectes hématophages d'importance médicale et vétérinaire. Cette sous-famille des Stomoxyinae comprend 52 espèces connues, réparties en 10 ...genres. Trois genres, Stomoxys, Haematobosca et Haematobia représentent des ectoparasites du bétail causant d’importantes pertes économiques dans les élevages. Le genre Stomoxys comprend 18 espèces reconnues. Mais la plupart des connaissances ont été acquises sur l’espèce cosmopolite S. calcitrans. Les stomoxes causent une importante nuisance pour les animaux d’élevage et sont des vecteurs mécaniques d'agents pathogènes. Le présent article résume une partie des études qui ont été menées depuis une vingtaine d’années sur les stomoxes dans différentes régions biogéographiques. Une meilleure connaissance de leur biologie et de leur écologie nous permet désormais d’évaluer l’efficacité et la faisabilité sur le terrain de nouvelles méthodes de contrôle, plus respectueuses de l’environnement que l’utilisation d’insecticides.
Les stomoxes (Diptera : Muscidae : Stomoxyinae) sont des insectes hématophages dimportance médicale et vétérinaire. Cette sous-famille des Stomoxyinae comprend 52 espèces connues, réparties en 10 ...genres. Trois genres, Stomoxys, Haematobosca et Haematobia représentent des ectoparasites du bétail causant d’importantes pertes économiques dans les élevages. Le genre Stomoxys comprend 18 espèces reconnues. Mais la plupart des connais-sances ont été acquises sur l’espèce cosmopolite S. calcitrans . Les stomoxes causent une importante nuisance pour les animaux d’élevage et sont des vecteurs mécaniques dagents pathogènes. Le présent article résume une partie des études qui ont été menées depuis une vingtaine d’années sur les stomoxes dans différentes régions biogéo-graphiques. Une meilleure connaissance de leur biologie et de leur écologie nous permet désormais d’évaluer l’efficacité et la faisabilité sur le terrain de nouvelles méthodes de contrôle, plus respectueuses de l’environnement que l’utilisation d’insecticides.
Stable flies (Diptera : Muscidae : Stomoxyinae) are bloodsucking insects of medical and veterinary importance. The subfamily Stomoxyinae includes 52 known species in 10 genera. Three genera, Stomoxys, Haematobosca , and Hae-matobia , represent important livestock pests causing significant economic losses in livestock sectors. The genus Stomoxys includes 18 recognized species. But most of the knowledge has been acquired about the cosmopolitan species S. calcitrans. Stable flies cause significant nuisance for livestock and are potential mechanical vectors of pa-thogens. The present publication attempts to summarize some of the studies that have been conducted over the past twenty years on stable flies in different biogeographic regions. A better knowledge of their biology and eco-logy now allows us to evaluate the effectiveness and feasibility in the field of new control methods, more envi-ronmentally friendly than the use of insecticides.
•We provide a summary of tabanid morphology, biology and life cycle.•We highlight their medical and veterinary importance.•We discuss parameters of mechanical transmission and its mathematical ...modeling.•We summarize the control methods for tabanid populations and livestock protection.•We provide recommandations for the direction of future research.
Tabanids are nuisance pests for people and livestock because of their painful and irritating bite, persistent biting behavior, and blood ingestion. About 4400 tabanid species have been described; they are seasonally present in all kinds of landscapes, latitudes, and altitudes. High populations have a significant economic impact on outdoor activities, tourism, and livestock production. Tabanids are also vectors of animal disease agents, including viruses, bacteria and parasites. However, tabanids have received little attention in comparison with other hematophagous Diptera. Here, we highlight the many direct and indirect impacts of tabanids and provide a brief summary of tabanid morphology, biology, and life cycle. Impacts include pathogen transmission, parasite transportation (Dermatobia hominis), biological transmission (Loa loa), and mechanical transmission of viruses, such as equine infectious anemia virus, protozoa, such as Trypanosoma evansi and Besnotia besnoiti, and bacteria, such as Bacillus anthracis and Anaplasma marginale. We discuss parameters of mechanical transmission and its mathematical modeling. Control methods for tabanid populations are also summarized; these include trapping, the use of insecticides, repellents, and livestock protection. Lastly recommendations are provided for the direction of future research.
In the subfamily Stomoxyinae there are currently 18 recognized Stomoxys species, plus two subspecies. Most Stomoxys knowledge was gained through studies with S. calcitrans, a cosmopolitan species, ...economic pest, and vector. Other Stomoxys spp. are known only from a few trapped adult specimens. Herein, the Stomoxys spp. have been grouped by their ecological diversity, global distribution, and phylogeny and phylogeography. Seven species are dependent to some degree on humans and their activities, particularly animal production. Eleven species are dependent on wildlife to some degree for their development, and little is known about their biology in many cases. Global distributions include one cosmopolitan species (S. calcitrans), twelve species found only in Africa, four species only in Asia, and one species (S. sitiens) in Africa and Asia. Most genetic studies on Stomoxys calcitrans showed little variation in North America, possibly due to the adults’ long range flight capability. Phylogeographic analysis of S. calcitrans showed a differentiation between Oriental populations (first lineage) and populations from Afrotropical, Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropical and Oceanian regions (second lineage). Genetic studies were followed by sequencing of the Stomoxys calcitrans genome and phylogenetic studies of the Stomoxys genus using 10 of the known species. Phylogenetic relationships were established.
Stomoxys calcitrans is considered as a major pest of livestock worldwide. Insecticides have been extensively used to control this pest but resistance to these chemical compounds is now reported in ...many countries. Therefore, a more sustainable and efficient control is needed. Seven different types of blue screens, with reflectances around 460 nm, were tested during summer 2016 in southwestern France to evaluate their attractiveness and their specificity for stable flies. Height of the screen and orientation (east or west) of a blue screen were also considered. High levels of S. calcitrans captures were recorded during this study (from 141 to 7301 individuals per blue screen and per day) whereas the numbers of tabanids and pollinator insects remained extremely low (less than 10 individuals per screen and per day). No significant difference in attractiveness has been shown between the different types of blue screens. The lower half of the blue screens caught significantly more stable flies (70%) than the higher half (30%). The “east” side of the screen attracted 60% of stable flies but this was not significantly different from the west side. These results are highlighting the interest in these blue polyethylene screens for controlling stable flies in cattle farms, in comparison with more expensive blue fabrics.
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