Abstract
Conversion of semi-natural habitats, such as field margins, fallows, hedgerows, grassland, woodlots and forests, to agricultural land could increase agricultural production and help meet ...rising global food demand. Yet, the extent to which such habitat loss would impact biodiversity and wild species is unknown. Here we survey species richness for four taxa (vascular plants, earthworms, spiders, wild bees) and agricultural yield across a range of arable, grassland, mixed, horticulture, permanent crop, for organic and non-organic agricultural land on 169 farms across 10 European regions. We find that semi-natural habitats currently constitute 23% of land area with 49% of species unique to these habitats. We estimate that conversion of semi-natural land that achieves a 10% increase in agricultural production will have the greatest impact on biodiversity in arable systems and the least impact in grassland systems, with organic practices having better species retention than non-organic practices. Our findings will help inform sustainable agricultural development.
•We analyse data from Flickr to identify different ‘groups’ of recreation users in the Camargue.•The method utilised image content analysis and Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA).•Temporal and spatial ...patterns of recreation differ between user groups.•We identified groups interested in nature, ornithology, religious pilgrimage, general use and aviation enthusiasts.•The methodology allows the understanding of context dependent groups of recreation beneficiaries.
Information and numbers on the use and appreciation of nature are valuable information for protected area (PA) managers. A promising direction is the utilisation of social media, such as the photo-sharing website Flickr. Here we demonstrate a novel approach, borrowing techniques from machine learning (image analysis), natural language processing (Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA)) and self-organising maps (SOM), to collect and interpret >20,000 photos from the Camargue region in Southern France. From the perspective of Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES), we assessed the relationship between the use of the Camargue delta and the presence of natural elements by consulting local managers. Clustering algorithms applied to results of the LSA data revealed six distinct user groups, which included those interested in nature, ornithology, religious pilgrimage, general tourists and aviation enthusiasts. For each group, we produced high-resolution spatial and seasonal maps, which matched known recreational attractions and annual festivals in the Camargue. The accuracy of the group identification, and the spatial and temporal patterns of photo activity, in the Camargue delta were evaluated by local managers of the Camargue regional park. This study demonstrates how PA managers can harness social-media to monitor recreation and improve their management decision making.
The Ramsar Convention is the multilateral agreement aimed at protecting wetlands globally. Wetlands are particularly recognized for their role in the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot by providing ...key habitats for endemic and migratory species, directly contributing benefits to the lives of people and being an integral part of their culture. In response to this importance, the Mediterranean Wetlands Observatory publishes Mediterranean Wetland Outlooks (MWOs) on the state and trends of Mediterranean wetlands; the first edition in 2012 (MWO1) and the second edition in 2018 (MWO2). In this paper, we used the results of the two Mediterranean Wetland Outlooks to highlight ways to increase the impact of the Ramsar Convention by identifying the spatial dimensions of detected biodiversity trends as well as the societal developments and estimated impacts of global change and protection status.
There is growing evidence of the inter‐relationships between ecosystems and public health. This creates opportunities for the development of cross‐sectoral policies and interventions that provide ...dual benefits to public health and to the natural environment. These benefits are increasingly articulated in strategy documents at national and regional level, yet implementation of integrative policies on the ground remains limited and fragmented. Here, we use a workshop approach to identify some features of this evidence–implementation gap based on policy and practice within a number of western European countries. The driving forces behind some recent moves towards more integrative policy development and implementation show important differences between countries, reflecting the non‐linear and complex nature of the policy‐making process. We use these case studies to illustrate some of the key barriers to greater integrative policy development identified in the policy analysis literature. Specific barriers we identify include: institutional barriers; differing time perspectives in public health and ecosystem management; contrasting historical development of public health and natural environment disciplinary policy agendas; an incomplete evidence base relating investment in the natural environment to benefits for public health; a lack of appropriate outcome measures including benefit–cost trade‐offs; and finally a lack of integrative policy frameworks across the health and natural environment sectors. We also identify opportunities for greater policy integration and examples of good practice from different countries. However, we note there is no single mechanism that will deliver integrative policy for healthier people and ecosystems in all countries and situations. National governments, national public agencies, local governments, research institutions, and professional bodies all share a responsibility to identify and seize opportunities for influencing policy change, whether incremental or abrupt, to ensure that ecosystems and the health of society are managed so that the interests of future generations, as well as present generations, can be protected.
There is growing evidence of the links between ecosystems and public health, but cross‐sectoral policies across health and environment are rare. We highlight some opportunities for greater policy integration across these sectors but caution that no single mechanism will deliver integrative policy for healthier people and ecosystems in all countries and situations. National governments, national public agencies, local governments, research institutions, and professional bodies all share a responsibility to identify opportunities for policies that prioritise the health of ecosystems and the public for the benefit of future generations.
•Current international biodiversity conservation targets are not achieved.•A diversification of biodiversity conservation strategies is required.•A wide range of actors actively contribute locally to ...biodiversity conservation.•Global recommendations need to be scaled down to local levels and actors.•Information to estimate biodiversity impacts of actions in the future is missing.
With global science-policy conventions for biodiversity and ecosystem services in place, much effort goes into monitoring and reporting on the progress toward policy targets. As conservation actions happen locally, can such global monitoring and reporting efforts effectively guide conservation actions at subnational level? In this paper we explore three different perspectives: policy reporting for policy implementation; scientific knowledge for empowerment and actions; and from past trends to influencing the future. Using these three perspectives, we identify ways forward for both decision makers and scientists on how to engage, inform and empower a larger diversity of actors who make decisions on the future of biodiversity and ecosystem services at multiple scales.
Social-ecological systems in the Mediterranean Basin are characterised by high biodiversity
and a prolonged cultural influence, leading to the co-evolution of these systems. The unique
...characteristics of Mediterranean social-ecological systems, current pressures leading to a
decline in ecosystem services, and the need for coordinated action are recognised by policies
promoting the protection and sustainable use of the region's heritage. Ecosystem
assessments provide valuable information on the capacity of the Mediterranean Basin to ensure
the well-being of its population. However, most assessments simplify the complexity of these
systems, which may lead to inaccurate ecosystem services supply and flow estimations. This
paper uses the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) model to guide an expert
consultation that identifies the key characteristics of the Mediterranean social-ecological
systems and analyses how these should be included in ecosystem assessments. Data collection was
carried out through expert consultation with ecosystem services researchers. Multiple sources
of complexity were identified, including the relationship between historical human activities,
biodiversity spatio-temporal patterns, as well as the seasonal and long-term variability in
ecosystem services. The importance of incorporating this complexity in ecosystem assessments
for evidence-based decision-making is identified, suggesting that there is a need to adapt
assessment approaches for the Mediterranean Basin social-ecological systems.
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•All ecosystem services categories are relevant for the Aichi Targets and the SDGs.•There is an information bias towards the supply side of ecosystem services.•Information on social ...behaviour and governance is lacking for ecosystem services flows.•Trade-offs caused by unsustainable development will likely remain undetected.•IPBES and national statistical bureaus offer an opportunity to improve ecosystem services assessments.
Global sustainability policies, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or the Aichi Targets, aim to ensure sustainable development, including improved human well-being and the conservation of nature. Although not yet explicitly used to evaluate the progress towards sustainable development, the ecosystem service concept implies a direct link between biodiversity and human well-being. This study explores how and which ecosystem services are currently considered in the SDGs and the Aichi Targets. We also identify which information might be already available for monitoring the progress towards their goals by reviewing national ecosystem assessments. This allows the identification of the main knowledge gaps for monitoring progress towards these global sustainability targets.
There is a wealth of information on all major ecosystem services categories which is directly relevant for the Aichi Targets and the SDGs. The top 25% most cited ecosystem services across both policy documents are: Natural heritage and diversity, Capture fisheries, Aquaculture, Water purification, Crops, Cultural heritage & diversity and Livestock. Most monitoring information recommended for the global sustainability goals, as well as in the information available from national assessments, is biased towards supply related aspects of ecosystem services flows. In contrast, there is much less information on social behaviour, use, demand and governance measures. Indicators are rarely available for all aspects of a specific ecosystem service.
The national statistical bureaus currently in charge of providing observations for reporting on SDGs, could be well placed to address this bias, by integrating ecological observations with socio-economic statistics into socio-ecological indicators for ecosystem services flows. IPBES can potentially address the gaps identified in this paper by improving coverage of the different dimensions of ecosystem services flows.
•We assessed the impact of urbanisation on ES supply over the period 1990–2012.•The peri-urban area of 12 Mediterranean cities in Europe and North Africa was analysed.•Land cover data and an ...expert-based method were employed.•Overall urban area increased at the expenses of decreasing agricultural land.•Ecosystem service provided by the Mediterranean peri-urban areas was reduced.
Urbanization is an important driver of changes in land cover in the Mediterranean Basin and it is likely to impact the supply and demand of ecosystem services (ES). The most significant land cover changes occur in the peri-urban zone, but little is known about how these changes affect the ES supply. For eight European and four North African cities, we have quantified changes in peri-urban land cover, for periods of sixteen years (1990–2006) in the Northern African, and twenty-two years (1990–2012) in the European cities, respectively. Using an expert-based method, we derived quantitative estimates of the dynamics in the supply of twenty-seven ES. The nature of land cover changes slightly differed between European and North African Mediterranean cities, but overall it increased in urban areas and decreased in agricultural land. The capacity of the peri-urban areas of Mediterranean cities to supply ES generally reduced over the last 20–30 years. For nine ES the potential supply actually increased for all four North African cities and three out of the eight European cities. Across all cities, the ES timber, wood fuel and religious and spiritual experience increased.
Given the expected increase of urban population in the Mediterranean Basin and the current knowledge of ES deficits in urban areas, the overall decrease in ES supply capacity of peri-urban areas is a risk for human well-being in the Mediterranean and poses a serious challenge for the Sustainable Development Goals in the Mediterranean basin.
Ecosystems are complex and data-intensive systems, and the ecologists still struggle to understand them in an integrated manner. Models that miss key dynamics can possibly lead to fallacious ...conclusions about the ecosystem fate. To address these limits and encompass whole and realistic ecosystems, we develop here a qualitative model with the help of discrete-event models. This model, based on formal Petri nets, was able to integrate biotic, abiotic and human-related components (e.g. grazing) along with their processes into the same interaction network. The model was also able to grasp ecosystem development, as defined by sharp changes of the interaction network structure itself. Furthermore, the model was possibilistic and thus rigorously computed all possible ecosystem states reached after a specific (present-day) initial state. This innovative approach in ecology then allows to rigorously and exhaustively identifying all possible ecosystem trajectories and to study their impacts and outcomes. For the first time in a realistic ecosystem, we illustrated such discrete and qualitative models in the case study of temporary marshes in the Mediterranean part of France, the Camargue delta. The model demonstrated that when marshes are exposed to extensive grazing the presence of marsh heritage species (i.e. with a conservation value) is facilitated by opening up the vegetation through various trajectories. This supports the commonly used management practices of extensive grazing to conserve certain protected habitats. The detailed analysis of the computed ecosystem trajectories allows exploring a range of recommendations for management strategies.
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•We developed discrete-event and qualitative models of (socio-)ecosystems.•We integrated biotic, abiotic, anthropic components into a single representation.•We modeled exhaustive ecosystem trajectories with sharp structural changes.•As a first realistic application for ecosystem functioning and development.•Modeled temporary marshes confirmed beneficial effects of extensive grazing.
To evaluate progress on political biodiversity objectives, biodiversity monitoring provides information on whether intended results are being achieved. Despite scientific proof that monitoring and ...evaluation increase the (cost) efficiency of policy measures, cost estimates for monitoring schemes are seldom available, hampering their inclusion in policy programme budgets. Empirical data collected from 12 case studies across Europe were used in a power analysis to estimate the number of farms that would need to be sampled per major farm type to detect changes in species richness over time for four taxa (vascular plants, earthworms, spiders and bees). A sampling design was developed to allocate spatially, across Europe, the farms that should be sampled. Cost estimates are provided for nine monitoring scenarios with differing robustness for detecting temporal changes in species numbers. These cost estimates are compared with the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) budget (2014–2020) to determine the budget allocation required for the proposed farmland biodiversity monitoring. Results show that the bee indicator requires the highest number of farms to be sampled and the vascular plant indicator the lowest. The costs for the nine farmland biodiversity monitoring scenarios corresponded to 0·01%–0·74% of the total CAP budget and to 0·04%–2·48% of the CAP budget specifically allocated to environmental targets. Synthesis and applications. The results of the cost scenarios demonstrate that, based on the taxa and methods used in this study, a Europe‐wide farmland biodiversity monitoring scheme would require a modest share of the Common Agricultural Policy budget. The monitoring scenarios are flexible and can be adapted or complemented with alternate data collection options (e.g. at national scale or voluntary efforts), data mobilization, data integration or modelling efforts.
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