Newly defined categories of WEEE have increased the types of China's regulated WEEE from 5 to 14. Identification of the amounts and valuable-resource components of the "new" WEEE generated is ...critical to solving the e-waste problem, for both governmental policy decisions and recycling enterprise expansions. This study first estimates and predicts China's new WEEE generation for the period of 2010-2030 using material flow analysis and the lifespan model of the Weibull distribution, then determines the amounts of valuable resources (e.g., base materials, precious metals, and rare-earth minerals) encased annually in WEEE, and their dynamic transfer from in-use stock to waste. Main findings include the following: (i) China will generate 15.5 and 28.4 million tons WEEE in 2020 and 2030, respectively, and has already overtaken the U.S. to become the world's leading producer of e-waste; (ii) among all the types of WEEE, air conditioners, desktop personal computers, refrigerators, and washing machines contribute over 70% of total WEEE by weight. The two categories of EEE-electronic devices and electrical appliances-each contribute about half of total WEEE by weight; (iii) more and more valuable resources have been transferred from in-use products to WEEE, significantly enhancing the recycling potential of WEEE from an economic perspective; and (iv) WEEE recycling potential has been evolving from ∼16 (10-22) billion US$ in 2010, to an anticipated ∼42 (26-58) billion US$ in 2020 and ∼73.4 (44.5-103.4) billion US$ by 2030. All the obtained results can improve the knowledge base for closing the loop of WEEE recycling, and contribute to governmental policy making and the recycling industry's business development.
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•Substance flow analysis for nickel cycle is determined from 2000 to 2015.•China is confronted with the increasing risk of uncontrolled nickel importation.•More and more nickel has ...been stocked in the consumption stage and landfill plant.•China’s nickel sustainability relies on constant importation and full recycling.
Nickel is playing a pivotal role in development of modern infrastructure and technology with major applications such as stainless steel, alloy, rechargeable batteries and electroplating. Rapid industrial development and economic growth of China has accelerated the depletion of natural resource pools since recent three decades. Therefore, this study was performed to examine the evolution of substance flow of nickel. Main findings include the following: 1) China is being confronted the increasing risk of uncontrolled importation; 2) The consumption amount has been constantly extended up to 1010 Gg in 2015, however the obsolescence amount is almost remained at an unchanged range of 45–50 Gg; 3) If more nickel has been stocked in the consumption stage and landfill plants, only 30% is recycled. The obtained results implied that China should not only find more sources of imported minerals, but also there should be an enhancement of the urban mining for nickel resources in the circular economy field.
E-waste has attracted global concern owing to huge generation amount, rich valuable metal content, and potential environmental risk. The evaluation of the recycling potential is becoming more and ...more important, especially for many recyclers when they are hesitating which substance is more worthwhile to recover. In this research, a simplified method is set up to calculate the recycling potential of many metals in e-waste, and considers four respects, including existence condition, substance toxicity, economic condition and technical condition. A study case based on the liquid crystal display (LCD) is presented as an example to assess the recycling potential of substances contained. The recycling potential of the contained metals was measured according to those four aspects. As a result, the priority level of these substances recycled from waste LCDs is aluminum (Al) > mercury (Hg) > indium (In) > tin (Sn) > zinc (Zn), and the technological level would be an important factor that affect the recycling potential value of Hg. The toxicity and the price are two key issues that affect the recycling potential of Sn compared with Zn. When the price of In increased twenty-fold or more, the recycling potential should be taken fully into account.
Examining the circular economy model is crucial to enable the scaling up of industry and anthropogenic circularity practice. Electrical and electronic waste plastic (e-plastic) has become the focus ...of urban mining and circular economy due to its rapid growth, valuable resource and potential risks. This article focuses on the recycling companies' experience in China from 2012 to 2017. The average recycling rate was 33.3% and the recycling amount in 2017 was 558 kt. A two-dimensional coupling model of economic development and renewable resources is firstly constructed. Eventually, four typical resource-based regional models are summarized, namely for demonstration regional model, commissioned regional model, traditional model and potential regional model. It also puts forward differentiated suggestions in terms of maintaining demonstration, strengthening policies, promoting transformation, and tapping potential. At the same time, it is recommended to explore the construction of large-region resource-based recycling centers and big data centers in resource-based demonstration areas.
Although studies have estimated the associations of PM2.5 with total mortality or cardiopulmonary mortality, few have comprehensively examined cause-specific mortality risk and burden caused by ...ambient PM2.5. Thus, this study investigated the association of short-term exposure to PM2.5 with cause-specific mortality using a death-spectrum wide association study (DWAS). Individual information of 5,450,764 deaths during 2013–2018 were collected from six provinces in China. Daily PM2.5 concentration in the case and control days were estimated by a random forest model. A time-stratified case-crossover study design was applied to estimate the associations (access risk, ER) of PM2.5 with cause-specific mortality, which was then used to calculate the population-attributable fraction (PAF) of mortality and the corresponding mortality burden caused by PM2.5. Each 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 concentration (lag03) was associated with a 0.80 % 95 % confidence interval (CI): 0.73 %, 0.86 % rise in total mortality. We found greater mortality effect at PM2.5 concentrations < 50 μg/m3. Stratified analyses showed greater ERs in females (1.01 %, 95 %CI: 0.91 %, 1.11 %), children ≤ 5 years (2.17 %, 95 %CI: 0.85 %, 3.51 %), and old people ≥ 70 years. We identified 33 specific causes (level 2) of death which had significant associations with PM2.5, including 16 circulatory diseases, 9 respiratory diseases, and 8 other causes. The PAF estimated based on the overall association between PM2.5 and total mortality was 3.16 % (95 %CI: 2.89 %, 3.40 %). However, the PAF was reduced to 2.88 % (95 %CI: 1.88 %, 3.81 %) using the associations of PM2.5 with 33 level 2 causes of death, based on which 250.15 (95 %CI: 163.29, 330.93) thousand deaths were attributable to short-term PM2.5 exposure across China in 2019. Overall, this study provided a comprehensive picture on the death-spectrum wide association between PM2.5 and morality in China. We observed robust positive cause-specific associations of PM2.5 with mortality risk, which may provide more precise basis in assessing the mortality burden of air pollution.
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•We estimate association of short-term exposure to PM2.5 with cause-specific mortality.•A time-stratified case-crossover study design was used in 5.4 million deaths in China.•Short-term exposure to PM2.5 is associated with mortality from 33 specific causes.•Mortality burden of PM2.5 using associations with total mortality was overestimated.•The results provide more precise basis in assessing mortality burden of air pollution.
The evidence is limited for the mortality burden of temperature variability between neighboring days. This study developed a novel indicator to measure temperature variability between neighboring ...days and quantify its mortality burden. Daily mortality and meteorological data during 2006-2017 from 364 locations across China were collected. We first employed a distributed lag non-linear model and multivariable meta-analysis to investigate the association between the diurnal temperature range (DTR) with the years of life lost (YLL) rate and the association between the nocturnal temperature range (NTR) with the YLL rate. Then, we calculated the weight temperature variability between neighboring days (weight-TVN) based on the attributable YLL rate of the DTR and NTR. The relationship between the weight-TVN and YLL rate was analyzed, and the attributable fraction (AF) of the YLL and weight-TVN related life loss per death was calculated to quantify the mortality burden. Stratified analyses were conducted by region, season, gender, age group and cause of death. The DTR-YLL rate curve and NTR-YLL rate curve were both J-shaped and a higher YLL rate attributable to DTR was observed than NTR. There was a significant association between the weight-TVN and YLL rate. An estimated AF of the weight-TVN was 6.02% (95%CI: 3.71%-8.33%). The average life loss per death due to weight-TVN was 0.93 year (95%CI: 0.57-1.29). Stratification analyses showed that the AFs of weight-TVN were relatively larger in southern China, in the cold season, in the elderly, females and patients with respiratory illnesses. Although the AF of weight-TVN among the young group (AF = 4.74%, 95%CI: 1.79%-7.69%) was lower than for the elderly (AF = 6.06%, 95%CI: 3.72%-8.41%), weight-TVN related life loss per death among the young population (1.51, 95%CI: 0.57-2.45) was much higher than in the elderly (0.59, 95%CI: 0.36-0.82). A novel indicator to measure temperature variability between neighboring days was developed, and temperature fluctuation between adjacent days significantly increased the mortality burden. Our results indicate that more attention should be paid to short-term temperature fluctuation.
Although studies have investigated the associations between PM2.5 and mortality risk, evidence from rural areas is scarce. We aimed to compare the PM2.5-mortality associations between urban cities ...and rural areas in China. Daily mortality and air pollution data were collected from 215 locations during 2014–2017 in China. A two-stage approach was employed to estimate the location-specific and combined cumulative associations between short-term exposure to PM2.5 (lag 0–3 days) and mortality risks. The excess risks (ER) of all-cause, respiratory disease (RESP), cardiovascular disease (CVD), and cerebrovascular disease (CED) mortality for each 10 μg/m3 increment in PM2.5 across all locations were 0.54% (95% confidence interval CI: 0.38%, 0.70%), 0.51% (0.10%, 0.93%), 0.74% (0.50%, 0.97%), and 0.52% (0.20%, 0.83%), respectively. Slightly stronger associations for CVD (0.80% versus 0.60%) and CED (0.61% versus 0.26%) mortality were observed in urban cities than in rural areas, and slightly greater associations for RESP mortality (0.51% versus 0.43%) were found in rural areas than in urban cities. A mean of 2.11% (attributable fraction AF, 95% CI: 1.48%, 2.76%) of all-cause mortality was attributable to PM2.5 exposure in China, with a larger AF in urban cities (2.89% 2.12%, 3.67%) than in rural areas (0.61% −0.60%, 1.84%). Disparities in PM2.5-mortality associations between urban cities and rural areas were also found in some subgroups classified by sex and age. This study provided robust evidence on the associations of PM2.5 with mortality risks in China and demonstrated urban-rural disparities of PM2.5-mortality associations for various causes of death.
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•PM2.5 had greater effects on CVD/CED mortality in urban cities than rural areas•PM2.5 had stronger effects on RESP mortality in rural areas than urban cities•An annual mean of 16.5/100,000 deaths was attributable to PM2.5 in urban cities•An annual mean of 3.4//100,000 deaths was attributable to PM2.5 in rural areas•Spatially targeted measures are needed to reduce PM2.5-related mortality in China
Abstract
Background
Several studies have investigated the associations between ambient temperature and years of life lost (YLLs), but few focused on the difference of life loss attributable to ...temperature among different socioeconomic development levels.
Objectives
We investigated the disparity in temperature-YLL rate relationships and life loss per death attributable to nonoptimal temperature in regions with various development levels.
Methods
Three hundred sixty-four Chinese counties or districts were classified into 92 high-development regions (HDRs) and 272 low-development regions (LDRs) according to socioeconomic factors of each location using K-means clustering approach. We used distributed lag non-linear models (DLNM) and multivariate meta-analysis to estimate the temperature-YLL rate relationships. We calculated attributable fraction (AF) of YLL and temperature-related average life loss per death to compare mortality burden of temperature between HDRs and LDRs. Stratified analyses were conducted by region, age, sex and cause of death.
Results
We found that non-optimal temperatures increased YLL rates in both HDRs and LDRs, but all subgroups in LDRs were more vulnerable. The disparity of cold effects between HDRs and LDRs was significant, while the difference in heat effect was insignificant. The overall AF of non-optimal temperature in LDRs AF = 12.2, 95% empirical confidence interval (eCI):11.0–13.5% was higher than that in HDRs (AF = 8.9, 95% eCI: 8.3–9.5%). Subgroups analyses found that most groups in LDRs had greater AFs than that in HDRs. The average life loss per death due to non-optimal temperature in LDRs (1.91 years, 95% eCI: 1.72–2.10) was also higher than that in HDRs (1.32 years, 95% eCI: 1.23–1.41). Most of AFs and life loss per death were caused by moderate cold in both HDRs and LDRs.
Conclusions
Mortality burden caused by temperature was more significant in LDRs than that in HDRs, which means that more attention should be paid to vulnerable populations in LDRs in planning adaptive strategies.
Many studies have linked temperature with respiratory deaths, but epidemiological evidence of temperature-attributable years of life lost (YLL) from respiratory diseases is limited. Daily respiratory ...YLL rates were calculated using mortality data from 364 locations of China during 2006-2017, and meteorological data were collected for the same period. First, the distributed lag non-linear model (DLNM) was applied to estimate specific temperature-respiratory YLL rate associations in each location. Then multivariable meta-analysis was conducted to pool the location-specific estimates. Finally, we calculated the average life loss per death (LLD) to quantify the respiratory mortality burden of non-optimal temperature. Subgroup analyses were conducted by gender, age, region and cause of death. Inversely J-shaped association was observed between non-optimal temperature and respiratory YLL rate in China. The minimum YLL-rate temperature was 26.9 °C nationwide. An average of 1.37 years (95% CI: 1.06-1.65) LLD was attributable to non-optimal temperatures with 2.06 years (95% CI: 1.57-2.60) for pneumonia, 2.03 years (95% CI: 1.76-2.31) for chronic lower respiratory infections (LRTI), 0.88 years (95% CI: 0.65-1.09) for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), most of which was attributed to moderate cold (0.73 years, 95% CI: 0.65-0.80). LLD caused by non-optimal temperature was higher in males, the young, and north China. Exposure to non-optimal temperature increases respiratory YLL rate in China, most of which were attributed to moderate cold. People with respiratory diseases including pneumonia, chronic LRTI and COPD are vulnerable to non-optimal temperature exposure. The result of this study provides useful information to reduce temperature-related respiratory disease burden.
Global warming may increase the frequency of compound hot extremes (CHEs). This study aimed to assess the current mortality burden and future mortality risk attributable to CHEs in China.
Daily ...meteorological, air pollution and mortality data were collected in 364 locations from 2006 to 2017 across China. Hot day/night was identified as a day where daily Tmax/Tmin was higher than its 90th percentile in summer. CHE was defined as a hot night with a following hot day. Mortality risk attributed to CHEs in each location was first evaluated using a distributed lag non-linear model. Location-specific association was pooled using a multivariate meta-analysis model, and attributable fraction in the current time and mortality risk from CHEs under different climate change scenarios (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, RCP 8.5) in the future were assessed.
CHEs (RR: 1.23, 95%CI: 1.19–1.28) were associated with greater mortality risk, and 0.96% mortality was attributable to CHEs. We found that female, the elderly, and people living in north China were more vulnerable to CHEs. In addition, more intensive (RR: 1.07, 95%CI: 1.06–1.08) and consecutive CHEs (RR: 1.09, 95%CI: 1.02–1.17) could increase mortality risk. We further observed a seven to nineteen fold deaths attributable to CHEs in 2090s under middle and high climate change scenarios.
Our study found that CHEs significantly increased mortality risk and would cause considerable mortality burden in future. These findings suggest that it is necessary to develop clinical and public health policy to alleviate the mortality burden associated with CHEs.
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•Compound hot extreme significantly increased mortality risk•Female, the elderly, and people living in north China were more vulnerable•Compound hot extreme is projected to increase dramatically in future.•A rising trend of compound-hot-extreme-related-death is observed in future.
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